essay on the peloponnesian war

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The Peloponnesian War, Essay Example

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The Peloponnesian War is a crucial moment in not only the history of Ancient Greece, but also of the Occident, for arguably the following main reasons: 1) the conflict was essentially a civil war within Greece, which prevented the emergence of a unified Greece, 2) the war fought between coalitions led by Athens and Sparta respectively was an ideological war about democracy and the nature of rule and empire, and 3) the fractured Greece meant that the locus of power in the West would develop outside of Greece, that is, the emergence of the Roman Empire.

The military goals of the respective sides in the conflict directly inform all three of these reasons for the Peloponnesian War’s historical importance. Athens, largely because of its naval power, was a city-state with a tremendous influence in the region, and wished to expand its empire. At the same time, this expansion was consistent with Athens’ democratic vision of politics. Namely, the democratic model conflicted with the oligarchic model proposed by Sparta. The oligarchic model, by definition, favored multiple centers of political power, each with their own autonomy. The democratic model of Athens, however, was a universalist system, without a clear center of power. This influenced the military goals of Athens in two fundamental senses. Firstly, Athens had to dispose the competitive political system of oligarchy to assert the hegemony of democracy. Secondly, the very nature of democracy as a non-localized center of power, such as in oligarchy, meant that Athens had to expand. Sparta’s military goals, accordingly, were directly informed by Athenian expansion. Namely, Sparta assembled its allies in the Peloponnesian League so as to combat Athens’ aggressive policy. The nature of oligarchy entails decentralized sites of power, each city-state with a degree of autonomy. The growth of Athens as an empire would mean the loss of this autonomy for particular city-states. Accordingly, the military goal of Sparta was to stop Athens’ expansion, before Athens would become entirely hegemonic in the region.

In this context of conflicting political ideologies and military goals, the civil war in Greece known as the Peloponnesian War turned into an extended conflict ranging for three decades between Sparta and her allies and Athens and her allies. Arguably, however, the very nature of the Athenian conception of politics led to Athens’ failure in the war and Sparta’s victory. Namely, Athens’ entire political and military strategy was based on an aggressive expansionism, whereas Sparta’s political and military strategy was primarily defined by gathering oligarchic states together in an alliance to defeat Athens’ ambitions for empire. Athens’ ambitions for empire was the undoing of Athens: the most prominent example of this is the ill-fated campaign to Sicily, which marked a decisive turning point in the war. Despite the fighting in Greece, Athens nevertheless decided to send a massive military expedition to Sicily, feeling that victory in this critical strategic location would ensure Athenian dominance. This opening of a new front in the war proved disastrous however, as Athens aggressive military policy and its defeat in Sicily left the city-state subsequently weaker from the perspective of military strength. The Athenians’ desired growth of empire over-extended their capabilities and ultimately led to the victory of Sparta and the Peloponnesian League.

The effects of the war bear a profound significance. Greece was engaged in a brutal thirty year civil war. The strongest actor in Greece, Athens, was now defeated. If Greece had avoided civil war, it could have unified and become a new empire, much like when the Greek city-states unified during the Persian war. Instead, this fractious civil war logically led to political hegemony in the region shifting to other locations. Accordingly, the rise of Rome can be directly correlated to the failure of Greece to unify: the Roman dominated course of Western history could easily have been different, for example, if Athens had won the Peloponnesian war or if the war could have been entirely avoided.

Hunt, L. et al. (2010). Making of the West: A Concise History, 4th., Vol. I. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

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Peloponnesian War: Summary, Causes, & Effects Research Paper

Introduction, major causes of the war, development stages of peloponnesian war, archidamian (431-421 bc), the peace of nicias, the sicilian expedition, consequences of the war, works cited.

The Peloponnesian war is still widely studied in the history of Western Civilization. It was the second war that lasted between 431BC and 404BC. Athens and her empires (Spartans) engaged each other fiercely in the war.

The main catalyst of the war was intense conflict that had dominated Athens and Sparta. The very conflict was also evident during the earlier wars in Persia (McKay et al. 205). The genesis and progress of the war was heavily documented by Thucydides. He attributed the rising Athens imperialism power as the major cause of the war. One of the devastating impacts of the war was witnessed in Athens.

The latter dismantled its empire, a move that divided the entire Greek state. The division left Greece powerless to prevent Persian Empire from reclaiming their Asian possessions (Encyclopedia Britannica (a) par. 8). Nonetheless, the works of an Athenian historian named Thucydides provides a lot of information on Peloponnesian war. Modern scholars have tried to make several interpretations to the war by critical reading of Thucydides account (Bagnall 122).

According to McKay et al. (555), any major war may be triggered by either known or unknown forces. In order to explore the rationale of this war, clhistorians have borrowed much from Thucydides’ writings. Thucydides, an Athenian General, wrote an account of the Peloponnesian War. However, some historians doubt if he ever took part in the war since some of his documented works are surprisingly vivid and coherent to qualify for a third-person narration (Encyclopædia Britannica (b) par.18).

According to Bagnall (122), the major cause of the war as accounted by Thucydides was the indiscriminate expansion of Athenian power. The increased power, presence and authority of Athenian were by far and large, linked to economic dynamism and Periclean Imperialism. Moreover, the increase in Athenian power instilled fear on Sparta.

The latter retaliated by developing a grudge that would eventually lead to war (Encyclopædia Britannica (a) par. 6). Besides, the Spartans had always enjoyed great power and since Athenians had overshadowed their presence in Peloponnesus, retaliation was the best way to go in order to resume the powerful position. According to McKay et al (566), the above explanation could be equated to Greek Culture at that time which viewed life as a perpetual struggle among human beings to gain advantage.

According to Thucydides, Sparta army had no reason to fear Athenian rise to power since their army was larger and well equipped. At the beginning of the war, the Spartan army was estimated at 2000 cavalry and 30,000 hoplites as compared to Athens who had only 1200 cavalry and 13,000 hoplites (Bagnall 182).

However, Athenian navy was stronger than Spartan although the interest of Spartans in the sea was limited. Their only passion was in Peloponnesus. As such, they had no reason to fear. According to Bagnall (192), the fear could be linked to Corinth, the Spartan leader who feared Athenian imperialism in contrast to fearing the size of the army. Imperialism had set a ground for Athens to compete on an equal basis with Sparta for Aegean and western colonies.

Investigation over the reliability of Thucydides account of the war has always interested some scholars who view him as a partisan of Athens and that his account could mislead the audience altogether. According to Encyclopædia Britannica( a, par.12), if indeed Thucydides was a partisan, his works could have hidden the fact that Athens was the aggressor.

In addition, other scholars have viewed the reason to be too simplistic to cause such an overwhelming war. Wars have always been associated with differing political and ideological beliefs between two opposing sides, but Thucydides account lack any explanation on the above factors (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 6).

Bagnall (202) suggests that Thucydides may have been embroiled in a conflict that would have arisen between the supporters of democracy and oligarchy. In addition, the Dorian’s and Ionians cultural and racial differences were different and could be a basis of conflict. He refutes Thucydides as a reliable source of the event leading to the Peloponnesian war for it ignores the main ingredients that fuel any war (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 12).

Thucydides used the events of the 50-year period before the war to arrive at his ideology of what would have sparked the war (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 19). Bagnall (221) refutes Thucydides explanation since the historical events before the war were not enough to justify the war.

He perceives Thucydides account as an escape strategy since he could not personally understand why the war broke out. Thucydides account shows that Pericles had prepared for the war by assessing the strengths and weaknesses of Athenian army long before the Peloponnesian league (McKay et al. 596).

As a strategy to gain advantage over Athenians, Pericles had built a wall between Piraeus and Athens. In addition, he increased his reserve find with over 6,000 talents. According to (McKay et al. 616) the strategy was amount to cause conflict with other states. He adds that Thucydides could have accounted Pericles imperial ambition as another reason the colonies went to war.

McKay et al. (602) concludes that Peloponnesian war can be attributed to several factors rather than the mere fear created by Athenian imperialism. The conflicts that existed between Athenians and the Peloponnesian league are myriad. Hence, it is not possible to pin point a particular incident as the major cause of the war. He advocates that the causes of this war should be viewed as a complex string of related factors such as conflict between democracy and oligarchy.

Historians classify the war into three parts namely the Archidamian war (431-421 BC), the peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (420-413 BC) and the Ionian war (412-404 BC).

The Archidamian period war that spanned for ten years was named after a Spartan king, Archidamus. The honor was for his contribution to the cautious policy that the Spartans employed during the start of the war. It was also due to the fact that he had directly opposed going to war with Athens (Encyclopædia Britannica (b) par. 16).

The Archidamian stage saw each of the two opposing sides come up with strategies aimed at achieving victory in the war that each side hoped would be short (Bagnall 112). The Spartans adapted a traditional strategy that involved gathering a large and powerful hoplite army at Corinth’s isthmus. The hoplites would have guaranteed Spartans victory if Athens attacked while a reserve Peloponnesian army would guarantee attack Athens in Attica if they decided to hide behind the walls of Attica (Bagnall 121).

Spartans chose the above strategy as it has brought them victory in all the previous battles against their enemies. However, the Athens proved to be experienced in war a thing which made the war to prolong than each of the sides had anticipated. Athens had a big empire and held a supreme position at sea a situation that put them at an advantage, and thus could not be forced to surrender. The position also made them not to fall onto Spartans trick to fight back when their territories were invaded. The sea ensured they had a constant supply of grains and other commodities even if Attica was ravaged (Bagnall 122).

Pericles, on the other hand, exploited Athens strategic position and planned to gather his army inside Athens and deserted Attica to the enemy (Encyclopedia Britannica (a) par.17). His strategy was to lure the Peloponnesian army before the walls of Athens, and then attack their coastline at ease. Athens was at an advantage since the Peloponnesians could not carry on for long as they had to return home to harvest so they can refill their supplies (Bagnall 144).

During the first year, the strategies of the two sides seemed to be working since they proceed according to plan. Archidamus army invaded Attica but Athens remained adamant to attack (Bagnall 144). Spartan had invaded Attica in the hope that Athens hoplites would offer resistance of which they would attack fiercely and the plan was to end the war as soon as possible. Since no amount of provocation would make the Athenians hoplites to fight back, Peloponnesian had to retire and disperse after several weeks.

When they finally withdrawn, Athenians took the opportunity to equip a fleet of 100 ships and they raided Peloponnese. In addition, Pericles got his army out of Attica, and they raided Megarid as a revenge of Attica invasion (Encyclopædia Britannica (b) par.46). According to (Bagnall 145) their strategies of relying on attrition to win the war was what made it difficult to predict and measure how long the war would last, and if it would end in the first place.

The following summer saw the Spartans adapt a direct attack strategy. Led by their King Archidamus they invaded Attica and destroyed most of it (McKay et al. 662). The Athenians reacted to the attacks by attacking the Spartan navy, but their strategy was proving to be too expensive.

In addition, the Athenians got a blow when their leader Pericles died from a plague that claimed more a third of Athenian citizens (McKay et al. 615). The Spartans took the weakening advantage of Athenians, and attacked Plataea of which they managed to subside by 427 BC. The success victory to seize Plataea made the Spartans think they were winning the war, and a wrap up they invaded Attica again. However, their calculation was wrong, and Athenians suppressed the Lesbos revolt in 427 (McKay et al. 665).

They also embarked on a more aggressive attack where they invaded western Greece also managed to gain possession if Minoa island and in turn reclaimed a strategic position to the port of Megara. Under the leadership, of general Nicias Athenians succeeded to seize Isle of Melos, countryside of Tanagra and Locris, also tried to attack Westside of Greece to not avail (Bagnall 148).

As the war progressed, Athenians were receiving more courage to launch more daring attacks. The regained confidence drove them to invade the island of Sphacteria, and they captured 292 Spartan soldiers. They also adapted another strategy in an attempt to damage Spartan economy, where they built a fortress at Pylos from where they used to receive runaway slaves and helots (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 28).

The war continued as each side tried to outdo the other and each attack led to disasters after another. It came a time when both sides saw the need for a peace treaty as no one was ready for surrender (Bagnall 149). The peace treaty was called the peace of Nicias. Athens had survived the Archidamian war and this did not settle well with Spartans who always viewed themselves as superpower. Another war was not far from being fought as Spartans would take any available opportunity to show their mighty.

Like any other conflict, the Peloponnesian war claimed lives, destroyed fortunes and eroded patience of both the Spartans and Athenians (McKay et al. 667). The harsh situation forced them to look for a chance to make peace agreements. The period is named after Nicias, the leader of Athenian as he was in charge of negotiating for truce (Bagnall 146).

After negotiations, a thirty years period was agreed on. The war was not to be ended but a call for a cease fire was initiated. However, this was never the case since violence erupted yet again. The period lasted for seven years only that was full of skirmishes (Encyclopedia Britannica (a) par. 28). During the peace period, Athenian was able to recruit many citizens into the navy and when they eventually found a leader another war was could not be prevented.

The new Athenian leader in the name of Alcibiades came up with another strategy to build up on his uncle’s strategy. Initially, Athens exploited the strategy of defense, but with Alcibiades on board Athenians could now figure out how to defeat Spartans (Bagnall 146).

The Athenians under the leadership of Alcibiades planned for the Sicilian expedition amidst strong opposition from Nicias because he did not trust his nephew. However, all his strategies to persuade the citizens to refuse the expedition fell on deaf years as Alcibiades who was a good speaker convinced the citizens to support the cause (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 26).

As days progressed. there was nothing to stop the expedition and as a tradition Alcibiades and Nicias were elected the commanders of Athenian army, and another commander Lamachus to be the mediator incase of any differences between the two. The Athenian army that was sent to Sicily was very large almost exhausted their treasury (McKay et al. 592).

The expedition was doomed to fail from the onset since having been accused of a crime in the eve of the expedition; Alcibiades was arrested along the way. When he was being taken back to Athens for charges, he managed to escape in the sea and later joined the Spartans side where he gave them all the secrets of the expeditions (Bagnall 148).

Athenians had made a gross error to withdraw Alcibiades while he was the key architect behind the expedition. There were several setbacks that commenced when they failed to attack Syracuse (Bagnall 132).

In the process of assaulting Syracuse, Lamachus was killed leaving Nicias a lone leader. Nicias was not a good leader when it came to conducting invasion as he only excelled in defense. He was slow and missed several great opportunities, which led to many of his mean being killed. Back home the Athenian assembly had heard of the devastating news and they sent him more men for reinforcement (McKay et al. 658).

Athenian army was ill equipped, and they could not win the war. Thus, they concentrated to keep their fleet save to take them back to Athens. However, Nicias kept postponing their departure from Syracuse, and the Spartans ambushed their fleet cutting off any transport back home (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 22). The Athenian army adequately short of supplies resorted to cross to Sicily, which were their sympathizers.

However, this was not to be as Spartans laid an ambush for them as they were crossing the river. They slaughtered most of them, capture the rest and enslaved them. It is reported that very few Athenians navy made it home. The Sicily expedition which is recorded in Greek history because of the large number of the army involved, ended in defeat for the Athenians (Bagnall 138).

The war turned out to be a catastrophe for Athens. She lost her empire and also never regained any political influence in the region (Encyclopedia Britannica (a) par. 36). However, she managed to preserve her wealthy status in the region. On the hand, Spartan won the war but was ill equipped to deal with the victory phase.

The expertise of her leaders and the governance structure were not appropriate to the big region (Encyclopedia Britannica (b) par. 18). It never built a new empire, and her attempt to lead Greeks failed. The defeat of Athens left Greece disunited, and vulnerable to future attacks. Scholars equate the Athenians defeat as a Greece defeat as only she was capable of creating a united Greece (McKay et al. 694).

Bagnall, Nigel. The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Greece. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Print.

Encyclopedia Britannica (a). Ancient Greek civilization , 2011. Jun. 23 2011, web. < https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece >.

Encyclopedia Britannica (b). Peloponnesian War . Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. Jun. 23. 2011, web. < https://www.britannica.com/event/Peloponnesian-War >.

McKay, P. John et al. A History of Western Society (9 th ed.). Urbana-Champaign: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2008, Print.

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The Peloponnesian War: The brutal conflict that destroyed the ancient Athenian empire

The Peloponnesian War was a brutal conflict which was fought between 431 BC and 404 BC between the Athenian Empire and the Peloponnesian League, which was led by Sparta.

In total, the war lasted for 27 years and resulted in the dramatic downfall of the Athenian Empire and the rise of Sparta as the dominant Greek city-state. 

It would be the most traumatic and influential struggle in all of ancient Greek history.

The growing power struggle in ancient Greece

After the Greco-Persian Wars (499-479 BC), Athens and Sparta were the two leading city-states in Greece.

As a result, they both sought to extend their own influence over other Greek cities which meant that their spheres of control frequently caused tension. 

Crucially, Athens and Sparta had different forms of government, different economic systems, and different approaches to how they treated their allies.

For example, Athens had become a significant economic power in Greece thanks to the Delian League , which Sparta was not a part of. 

This league was officially an alliance of city-states that paid Athens tribute.

In 454 BC, the treasury of the Delian League was moved from Delos to Athens itself. 

This made the other members of the league resent Athens. Regardless, this move made Athens very wealthy and allowed them to build a large navy.

Sparta , on the other hand, was the leading land military power in Greece. Their army was feared by many, and they had a reputation as the best warriors in the Greek world.

Around this time, Sparta was becoming worried about the growing power of Athens.

In fact, the Spartans had formed their own alliance system, known as the Peloponnesian League .

The league was made up of city-states that were under Spartan control.

However, things became complicated when members of the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues began entering into conflict with each other.

The two different leagues had been involved in an early conflict that has become known as The First Peloponnesian War, which lasted from around 460 to 446 BC.

This primarily involved the cities of Athens and Corinth, who was a Spartan ally.

This war ended by an agreed treaty, known as the Thirty Year's Peace.

However, this agreement would not last the intended thirty years and tensions between the two sides would eventually begin the Second Peloponnesian War in 431 BC.

The second of the two wars is usually referred to as the Peloponnesian War proper.

Who were the key leaders of the Peloponnesian War?

There were several key players involved in the Peloponnesian War. The two most important were Pericles of Athens and Lysander of Sparta.

Pericles was a prominent Athenian politician who served as the leader of the Delian League during the first phase of the war.

He was known for his speaking skills and his ability to rally support for Athens.

He also implemented a series of reforms that strengthened Athens militarily, economically, and politically.

In comparison, Lysander was a Spartan general who served as the leader of the Peloponnesian League during the second phase of the war.

He was known for his military talents and his famous victory at the Battle of Aegospotami, which would effectively end the war.

What caused the Peloponnesian War?

The Thirty Years' Peace came to an end due to a series of events, which began in 432 BC.

In that year, Athens had demanded that the city of Poteidaia remove their fortifications so that Athens could trade safely in the region of Thrace.

However, the Poteidaians saw this as a direct threat, and asked Sparta for help. In response to this, Athens laid siege to the city.

Athens then issued a ruling called the Megarian Decrees, which were sanctions imposed by Athens on the nearby city of Megara, which banned them from trading in the markets of the Athenian Empire.

This would result in significant economic losses for the city and force it to become a subject state to Athens.

So, Megara also appealed to its ally, Sparta, for help. In response, Sparta demanded that Athens retract the decree.

Athens refused to do so, which many people feared would lead to war again.

However, the Spartans did not restart conflict immediately, but began preparing for the inevitable war.

Finally, when one of Sparta's allies, the city of Thebes, attacked Plataea, one of Athens' allies in 431 BC, the Peloponnesian army, led by the Spartan king Archidamus II, invaded Attica, and the Peloponnesian War began.

Outline of the war

In total, there were two major periods of fighting interspersed with several years of truce.

The first phase of the war, known as the Archidamian War, lasted from 431 to 421 BC.

The second phase, known as the Decelean War, lasted from 415 to 404 BC.

Major events of the Archidamian War

The Archidamian War began with the initial Spartan invasion of Attica, which was the region around Athens.

This invasion was led by King Archidamus II. The Spartans were hoping to weaken Athens by destroying its crops and livestock.

In response to the Spartan invasion, Pericles implemented a strategy known as the Long Walls Strategy.

This involved sheltering the populace of Athens and Attica behind the newly constructed walls that connected the city of Athens to its port city of Piraeus.

This allowed Athens to import food and supplies from other city-states via the sea, thereby negating the effects of the Spartan invasion.

However, in 430 BC, a devastating plague broke out in Athens, which killed many people due to the cramped conditions inside the city, including Pericles himself.

In spite of this setback, Athens was able to continue fighting. However, neither side was able to score a decisive victory over the other. 

In 428 BC, Athens defeated Lesbos and in 427, Plataea was defeated by Sparta.

In 426 BC, the Athenian general Demosthenes commanded 40 triremes in a campaign against Pylos, where they defeated the Spartans stationed at Sphacteria.

Then, in 424 BC, the Athenians launched an invasion against Megara and Boeotia, but it was a failure that resulted in a severe defeat near Delion.

However, Athens did manage to capture the Spartan-controlled island of Kythera. 

The Spartans likewise had victories under their general Brasidas and were employing non-Spartan hoplites for the first time.

Specifically, they were able to seize several key cities in Attica.

Then, in 424 BC, the Spartans besieged and then successfully captured the important Athenian ally of Amphipolis in Thrace.

In 422 BC, when the Athenian leader Cleon tried to recapture it, both he and the Spartan General Brasidas were killed in the fighting.

Exhausted and locked in a stalemate, in 421 BC, the two sides signed a peace treaty known as the Peace of Nicias .

This ended the Archidamian War stage of the war and ushered in a period of truce that was meant to last for fifty years.

However, it would only last for six.

The Sicilian expedition

In 415 BC, Athens sent a massive military expedition to support its isolated colony on the island of Sicily.

The expedition was led by the two Athenian commanders, Alcibiades and Nicias.

The purpose of this venture was to stop the Athenian colony from being conquered by the city of Syracuse, which was an ally of Sparta.

The expedition was initially successful and was able to capture several cities.

However, due to disagreements among the commanders, as well as a failed assault on Syracuse itself, the expedition ended in disaster. 

In fact, nearly the entire Athenian army was killed or captured, and Nicias was taken prisoner.

For his part, Alcibiades switched his allegiance and fled to Sparta, where he would become an important advisor in an attempt to help defeat Athens.

Unfortunately, this expedition was a major blow to Athens both militarily and politically.

Major events of the Decelean War

The Decelean War was fought from 415 to 404 BC. This phase of the war focused more on sea battles.

However, in order to challenge Athens on the water, Sparta needed to invest heavily in building triremes .

To raise the necessary funds to build a fleet, Sparta turned to Persia. Persia was more than happy to provide financial support to Sparta in return for their help in defeating Athens.

This is because Persia had an interest in fostering regional instability in Greece.

In 410 BC, Sparta launched an assault on Athens. This was the second time that they had invaded Attica since the beginning of the war.

The Spartans were hoping to take advantage of the fact that much of the Athenian army was away fighting in Sicily.

However, the Spartans were unsuccessful in their assault and were forced to retreat.

Then, in 406 BC, the nw Spartan fleet suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Arginusae.

This led them to ask for peace with Athens, which was surprisingly rejected.

A year later, in 405 BC, Athens' fleet was then defeated by the Spartans at the critical Battle of Aegospotami .

The overwhelming loss of ships and men in this battle made it practically impossible for Athens to rebuild its forces in time to counteract the Spartan victory, and Athens knew they had no choice but to surrender. 

This effectively ended the entire war. Sparta then imposed a harsh peace treaty on the Athenians.

Specifically, it required Athens to pay reparations to Sparta, dismantle its navy, and give up its imperial ambitions.

How the defeat changed Athens forever

After the Peloponnesian War, both Athens and Sparta experienced significant changes.

Importantly, the Delian League was finally dissolved forever, and Athens lost its empire. 

In the city of Athens itself, democracy was abolished and was replaced by a short-term tyranny led by Sparta.

However, this change in government did not last long, and a form of democracy returned.

Nevertheless, Athens would never return to the power it once held without the Delian League.

In comparison, Sparta's role in the Peloponnesian War led to its rise as the main power in Greece.

As a result, Sparta was able to impose its will on the other city-states in the region.

Unfortunately, it developed a negative reputation for its heavy-handed militarism. 

This period of Spartan dominance is known as the Spartan Hegemony.

Ultimately, the real winner of the war may have been the Persia Empire. This is because the Peloponnesian War weakened Greece and made it more susceptible to future Persian manipulation.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

The peloponnesian war.

The Peloponnesian War, one of the most significant events in ancient Greek history, enveloped the city-states of the ancient Greek world, forever changing the region.

Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Peloponnesian War

This copper engraving by Matthaus Merian illustration depicts the Athenian naval defeat near Corinth over the Corinthian and Spartan fleet around 430 B.C.E.

Photograph by akg-images/Newscom

The Peloponnesian War was a war fought in ancient Greece between Athens and Sparta—the two most powerful city-states in ancient Greece at the time (431 to 405 B.C.E.). This war shifted power from Athens to Sparta, making Sparta the most powerful city-state in the region. The war featured two periods of combat separated by a six-year truce.

Athens and Sparta had previously quarreled in the decades prior to the war. One of Sparta’s allies , Corinth, had directly engaged the Athenian army. As a Spartan ally, Corinth resumed hostilities toward Athens when Athens threatened Corinth’s interests in the region surrounding Corcyra. This eventually drew Sparta into the conflict. The Spartan army began by raiding lands within an Athenian allied territory , particularly a region near Athens called Attica. The Athenians had built walls stretching from their seaport to the city of Athens. The walls helped protect Athens from direct assault, and its leader, Pericles, urged Athens not to engage in direct land battles with the Spartans. Instead, the Athenians used their navy to deliver troops into the Spartan territory to conduct raids on settlements.

After years of open warfare, Sparta offered peace and Athens accepted. The agreement was made official with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The treaty stated that Athens and Sparta would defend each other for the next 50 years. However, the treaty only lasted six.

Hostilities resumed between Athens and Sparta with an assault launched by the Athenians at Sicily. Sparta decided to retaliate. Learning from its past experiences with the Athenian navy, they established a fleet of warships. It would be another decade of warfare before the Spartan general Lysander defeated the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami. This defeat led to Athenian surrender. As a result, the Peloponnesian War was concluded. Simultaneous to the end of this conflict came the end of the golden age of ancient Greece.

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Peloponnesian War

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 22, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

The two most powerful city-states in ancient Greece, Athens and Sparta , went to war with each other from 431 to 405 B.C. The Peloponnesian War marked a significant power shift in ancient Greece , favoring Sparta, and also ushered in a period of regional decline that signaled the end of what is considered the Golden Age of Ancient Greece.

The Cause of the Peloponnesian War

The formation of the Delian League, or Athenian League, in 478 B.C. united several Greek city-states in a military alliance under Athens, ostensibly to guard against revenge attacks from the Persian Empire. In reality, the league also granted increased power and prestige to Athens. The Spartans, meanwhile, were part of the Peloponnesian League (550 BC- 366 B.C.) of city-states. It was only a matter of time before the two powerful leagues collided.

The Great Peloponnesian War, also called the First Peloponnesian War, was the first major scuffle between them. It became a 15-year conflict between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Peace was decreed by the signing of the Thirty Years Treaty in 445 B.C., effective until 437 B.C., when the Peloponnesian War began.

A civil war in the obscure country of Epidamnus led to the involvement of Sparta’s ally, Corinth. When Sparta was brought in to be part of conflict negotiations, Corinth’s longtime enemy Corcyra targeted Epidamnus and seized it in a naval battle. Corinth retreated to rebuild its fleet and plan retaliation.

Did you know? The Athenians experienced a major setback when a plague broke out in 430 B.C. Between one-third and two-thirds of the Athenian population died, including the prominent general Pericles.

The Peloponnesian War Begins

In 433 B.C. the tension continued to build and Corcyra officially sought Athens’ support by arguing that conflict with Sparta was inevitable and Athens required an alliance with Corcyra to defend itself. The Athenian government debated the suggestion, but its leader Pericles suggested a defensive alliance with Corcya, sending a small number of ships to protect it against Corinthian forces.

All forces met at the Battle of Sybota, in which Corinth, with no support from Sparta, attacked and then retreated at the sight of Athenian ships. Athens, convinced it was about to enter war with Corinth, strengthened its military hold on its various territories in the region to prepare.

Sparta was hesitant to enter the war directly, but was eventually convinced by Corinth to do so, though this was not a popular decision among Sparta’s other allies. A year passed before Sparta took aggressive action. During that time, Sparta sent three delegations to Athens to avoid war, offering proposals that could be viewed as a betrayal of Corinth. These efforts conflicted with Pericles’ agenda and the Athenians rejected peace.

Athens vs. Sparta

The first 10 years of the conflict are known as “Archidamian War,” after Spartan King Archidamus. The Spartan slogan for that period was “Freedom for the Greeks,” and its stated aim was to liberate the states under Athenian rule by destroying its defenses and dismantling its structure.

As Spartan forces surrounded Athens in a siege, decimating the countryside and farmland, Pericles declined to engage against them near the city’s walls, instead leading naval campaigns elsewhere. He returned to Athens in 430 B.C. as a plague ravaged the city, killing nearly two-thirds of the population. Pericles, following a political uprising that led to his censure, succumbed to the plague in 429 B.C., fracturing the Athenian leadership. Despite this major setback for the Athenians, the Spartans saw only mixed success in their war efforts, and some major losses in western Greece and at sea.

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Athens developed a system in which every free Athenian man had a vote in the Assembly.

The Peace of Nicias

In 423 B.C., both sides signed a treaty known as the Peace of Nicias, named for the Athenian general who engineered it. Meant to last 50 years, it barely survived eight, undermined by conflict and rebellion brought on by various allies.

Second Phase of War

War reignited decisively around 415 B.C. when Athens received a call to help allies in Sicily against invaders from Syracuse, where an Athenian official defected to Sparta, convincing them that Athens was planning to conquer Italy. Sparta sided with Syracuse and defeated the Athenians in a major sea battle.

Who Won the Peloponnesian War?

Athens did not crumble as expected, winning a string of naval victories against Sparta, which sought monetary and weapons support from the Persian Empire. Under the Spartan general Lysander, the war raged for another decade. By in 405 B.C. Lysander decimated the Athenian fleet in battle and then held Athens under siege, forcing it to surrender to Sparta in 404 B.C.

Impact of the Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War marked the end of the Golden Age of Greece, a change in styles of warfare and the fall of Athens, once the strongest city-state in Greece. The balance in power in Greece was shifted when Athens was absorbed into the Spartan Empire. It continued to exist under a series of tyrants and then a democracy. Athens lost its dominance in the region to Sparta until both were conquered less than a century later and made part of the kingdom of Macedon .

The Peloponnesian War by Nigel Bagnall, published by St Martins Press, 2004.

The Peloponnesian War by Donald Kagan, published by Viking Penguin, 2003.

Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times by Thomas R. Martin, published by Yale University Press, 1996.

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