abnormal psychology final research paper

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PSY-470-BPD Final Research Paper

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Evidenced-Based Approaches to Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder – Final Research Paper Grand Canyon University PSY- Dr. Arena December 19, 2021

Evidenced-Based Approaches to Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder It is difficult to even imagine how individuals with abnormalities such as personality disorders face the world considering the frequent disconnection they experience that seemingly ‘detaches them from themselves.’ For myriads of individuals with personality disorders, having an unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving is a typical occurrence in their day- to-day life. Hence, it is important for the medical community and a society to understand how the society and cultural implications of personality disorders, and how they can be explained using models of abnormalities. Thus, this paper looks at borderline personality disorder (BPD), the societal and cultural implications, and how it relates to one model of abnormalities.

Comprehensive Explanation of Borderline Personality Disorder

Clinical Definition

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is the mental disorder underscored by an ongoing pattern of varying behavior, self-image and moods. In other words, BPD is an illness that causes an individual to develop self-defeating thoughts such as negative self-image and self-destructive behavior (Winsper, 2018). In many cases, BPD leads to impulsive actions resulting from intensive episodes of anger, anxiety and depression that creates problems in relationships, with the inability to manage emotions and behavior giving rise to a pattern of unstable relationships. While the causes of BPD remain unclear, there are certain risk factors pointed out in research, including socio-cultural and environmental factors, as well as brain structure and genetics. The DSM-5 outlines that an individual must show inappropriate, intense anger, consistent instability in emotions, self-image and interpersonal relationships, transient stress associated with

finding jobs and building close relationships (Haliczer, Woods, & Dixon-Gordon, 2021). In other words, BPD causes individuals to experience dysfunctional personality patterns that, in many cases, leads to severe distress not just for the individual but also those around them. It is an unfair advantage how persons with BPD are treated with less empathy. Therefore, public education about BPD and other mental health disorders is imperative to reduce the stigma and foster the acceptance of people with BPD by society.

Furthermore, albeit the variations in cultural viewpoints that underpin personality disorders such as BPD, several studies reveal that culture influence people’s description of their symptoms thereby affecting diagnosis and treatment. For instance, Choudhary and Gupta (2020) point out that culture dictates how individuals selectively describe their physical and emotional symptoms in a “culturally appropriate” manner without feeling judged or making themselves look bad. Taking an example, Asian patients are less likely to describe their emotional symptoms than their physical ones, which, in turn, affects their diagnosis as well as the plan of treatment since the Asian cultures such as the Korean culture is strict on how society views mental disorders. Also, in African cultures, the demonizing and stigma associated with mental disorders only increases the struggles faced by people with BDP since they fear coming out for help thereby lowering the rate of diagnosis and treatment. In this regard, Ronningstam et al. (2018) expound that the current DSM-5 integrates cultural viewpoints by looking at the influence of current social contexts, developmental experiences and background on perspectives on psychiatric condition. Thus, in view of how culture may, in some societies, be an explanatory or interpretive tool of behaviors that can be misperceived as pathological, these factors should be integrated in the diagnosis and treatment plan.

Models of Abnormality While there are several models for explaining and treating abnormal function as discussed in Chapter 3, there is no single model that comprehensive addresses all facets of abnormality. Even with this, BPD can best be explained and treated through the cognitive model. Hemsley (2019) posits that the cognitive model places emphasis on the thinking underlying a behavior. Therefore, the cognitive model can be used to understand how the self-defeating thoughts of a person with BPD lead to self-destructive behaviors that make it even difficult to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships. Cognitive theorists argue that maladaptive thinking leads to maladaptive behavior since faulty thinking prompts faulty assumptions and attitudes with these illogical thinking processes based on overgeneralization or negative conclusions leading to maladaptive behavior (Hemsley, 2005). In applying this to the case of BPD, seeing one’s self as bad (negative thoughts) triggers impulsive and risky behavior in response to the fear of rejection or separation and intense anger.

The applicability of the cognitive model of abnormality can also be seen in the treatment of BPD. As stated above, the cognitive model explains that disruptive patterns of thinking result in abnormal or negative behaviors, thus cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is used in treating BPD as it focuses on cognitive processes (Slotema et al., 2017). CBT enables people with BPD to establish and change core beliefs and behaviors that underpin misperceptions or inaccurate perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, as well as poor interpersonal relationships.

Choudhary, S., & Gupta, R. (2020). Culture and borderline personality disorder in India. Frontiers in psychology , 11 , 714.

Dell’Osso, L., Cremone, I. M., Carpita, B., Dell’Oste, V., Muti, D., Massimetti, G., & Gesi, C. (2019). Rumination, posttraumatic stress disorder, and mood symptoms in borderline personality disorder. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment , 15 , 1231.

Ditrich, I., Philipsen, A., & Matthies, S. (2021). Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) revisited–a review-update on common grounds and subtle distinctions. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation , 8 (1), 1-12. doi/10.1186/s40479-021-00162-w

Haliczer, L. A., Woods, S. E., & Dixon-Gordon, K. L. (2021). Emotion regulation difficulties and interpersonal conflict in borderline personality disorder. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment , 12 (4), 347. doi/10.1037/per

Hemsley, D. R. (2019). A simple (or simplistic?) cognitive model for schizophrenia. Behaviour research and therapy , 31 (7), 633-645. doi/10.1016/0005-7967(93)90116-C

Hemsley, D. R. (2005). The development of a cognitive model of schizophrenia: placing it in context. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 29 (6), 977-988. doi/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.

Ronningstam, E. F., Keng, S. L., Ridolfi, M. E., Arbabi, M., & Grenyer, B. F. (2018). Cultural aspects in symptomatology, assessment, and treatment of personality disorders. Current psychiatry reports , 20 (4), 1-10. doi/10.1007/s11920-018-0889-

Slotema, C. W., Blom, J. D., Deen, M., Niemantsverdriet, M. B., Van Der Gaag, M., Hoek, H. W., & Sommer, I. E. (2017). Negative beliefs about voices in patients with borderline personality disorder are associated with distress: a plea for cognitive-behavioural therapy?. Psychopathology , 50 (4), 255-261. doi/10.1159/

Winsper, C. (2018). The aetiology of borderline personality disorder (BPD): contemporary theories and putative mechanisms. Current opinion in psychology , 21 , 105-110. doi/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.10.

Yeomans, F. E., & Levy, K. N. (2018). Borderline Personality Disorder. Psychiatric Clinics , 41 (4), xiii-xv.

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Abnormal Psychology Final Research Paper

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Abnormal psychology is the scientific prediction, explanation, diagnosis, and identification of the specific maladaptive behaviors and the best strategies to treat them. Currently, abnormal psychology, which is sometimes referred to as psychopathology, is a pathological issue that involves a psychological dysfunction that leads to both physical and psychological distress and impairs normal functioning, contrary to the norms and expected behavioral, societal, and cultural standards (Curtis & Kelley, 2019). Suicide is a major problem in contemporary society, involving killing oneself due to depression and other mental illnesses. Currently, suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States across all age groups. At least 121 suicide cases occur in the country per day, and this implies that more than 44,193 cases are recorded every year (Esang & Ahmed, 2018). Specifically, suicide is the death resulting from self-inflicted injuries performed with the intention to die from the same actions. Most suicide cases involve alcohol intoxication, which is responsible for at least 22% of suicide cases. Again, opioids, marijuana, and cocaine-related suicide cases cause 20%, 10.2%, and 4.6% of all suicide cases in the United States. Amphetamines contribute to 3.4% of suicide cases, although opioids remain the greatest risks of suicidal behavior in the country (Esang & Ahmed, 2018). Several factors cause suicide, although the issue is preventable and even though access to firearms is the most contributing factor to suicide in the US, the issue contributes to a range of mental health issues and substance abuse. Specifically, firearms contribute to at least 23,941 deaths annually, and this implies that it causes at least 7.3 deaths per 100,000 people (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2021). Suffocation suicides are also common, leading to a minimum of 13,563 deaths annually. Suicides resulting from suffocation cause a death rate of 4.1 per 100,000 people per year. Additionally, poisoning suicide is the least cause of suicide, claiming more than 6,125 deaths at the rate of 1.9 fatalities per 100,000 population worldwide (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2021).

Societal and/or cultural implications of suicide 

Isolation is a socio-cultural issue that increases suicide rates. Most people who have limited access to social support groups become more hostile and aggressive. Isolation increases depression, sleep disorders, and hopelessness that deteriorate social relationships and increase suicide risk. However, some people believe that suicide is a cult, and homicide-related suicides are linked to stress and depression, especially among the military. Some youths engage in suicide due to access to dangerous items, such as firearms. However, it is possible to reduce suicide and its related thoughts by increasing watch when possessed with suicidal thoughts, diagnosing and treating psychiatric conditions, and keenly observing young males, more so those that are belligerent and intoxicated. Culture plays a big role in increasing suicide rates in the US. Most citizens from African American and American Indian cultures are more susceptible to suicide due to humiliation, shame, and limited support from family members. In this regard, they feel isolated in all aspects of social and economic life; hence, they are unable to meet their expectations. Such environmental factors increase ideation, and the lack of crisis hotlines, therapists, and support groups can influence the victims’ cultural backgrounds and increase the risk of suicide. Racial groups are at a higher likelihood of suicidal behavior. Most of this population lives in impoverished urban centers, leading to an increased rate of suicide because life is hard in the suburban areas, and this exacerbates existing depression and contributes to the onset of new depressive episodes.

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Social intricacies among African American and Indian American cultures increase the risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), generalized anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. In this regard, impoverished social situations exacerbate the adverse experiences of trauma, including those linked to accidents. People who grapple with financial constraints, and cannot escape anxiety and depression by trucking their lives and living their lives despite individual feelings cannot overcome suicidal thoughts. Therefore, they are at a higher risk of suicide and mental illnesses. When they have no one to reach out to in times of difficulties, they develop feelings of hopelessness that increase their suicidal thoughts; hence, losing the sense of direction due to the lack of reason to live. However, suicidal thoughts are something to take seriously regardless of people’s ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

From the foregoing, acculturative stress is a major problem associated with higher levels of suicidal thoughts. However, the rate of suicide varies from one cultural context to the next because they understand emotional stressors differently. Unfortunately, certain cultural groups lack access to mental health services. Some Indian Americans hold certain cultural values that increase stigma and mental health concerns, more so those associated with embarrassment among adolescents. Therefore, suicidal thoughts and ideation are linked to racism because they involve patterns of behavior, including beliefs, attitudes, and institutional arrangements that increase depression, substance use, and hopelessness.

The social setup has a significant influence on individuals’ susceptibility to ideation. Suicide is more prevalent among the poor than the rich because the former is subjected to adverse social and economic disadvantages. Notably, poverty limits people’s access to social opportunities, such as education, employment, and social mobility. Consequently, the victims develop stress, hopelessness, and alienation. They may become exposed to greater violence and victimization with fewer family and community social support systems that cannot protect them against suicidality. Additionally, the social context is a key determinant of suicide rates among low-income populations. For example, people who live in impoverished urban areas are highly exposed to violence and toxic wastes that increase their exposure to adverse environmental conditions coupled with limited opportunities and ethnic discrimination. The lack of social support is a major factor that reduces self-esteem and deteriorates close relationships; hence, exacerbating stress and psychological and physical health. The lack of social networks implies that people are less suited to addressing their psychological and physical health, and they eventually feel alienated and depressed. The lack of group membership implies that individuals lack access to safety nets; hence, they experience stress and trauma linked to emotional, financial, and practical challenges, including those associated with transportation and childcare.

How suicide is related to the models of abnormality 

Suicide is related to diverse biological, psychological, and sociocultural issues. Suicide can alter the brain’s chemical balance and interfere with the functioning of the nervous system. Again, it can affect an individual’s psychological well-being by tampering with their personality through stressful occurrences that adversely impact cognition, self-efficacy, and early life experiences. In this regard, suicide can affect the person’s psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic-existential. Additionally, it conflicts with gender orientation, religious orientation, race, ethnicity, and culture. For example, depression has significant adverse impacts on suicide. Generally, mental illness increases the development of suicidal behaviors, and it is the leading cause of suicide-related deaths. A greater percentage of people who commit suicide have a history of mental illness and must have developed symptoms of isolating behaviors.

References 

Curtis, D. A., & Kelley, L. J. (2019). Myth-checking: Evaluating Teaching Activities in Abnormal Psychology. North American Journal of Psychology , 21(2), 245-251. Angelo State University Press. https://www-proquest-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/abicomplete/docview/2236690709/fulltextPDF/76B94D99EF8E4BC3PQ/5?accountid=7374 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). Suicide and self-harm injury. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/suicide.htm 

Esang, M., & Ahmed, S. (2018). A closer look at substance use and suicide. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 13 (6), 6-8. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp-rj.2018.130603 

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