modern american drama essay

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Elements of Modern American Drama

This paper works to examine the elements that have emerged in Modern American Drama, with particular reference to Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, against the background of a historical study of American Theatre through ages. The history of the theatres in America is studied, and the discussion extends to delineate particular movements and changes in the trajectory. Ranging from the period of colonization to the World Wars to the Great Depression period to the modern times, an analysis of the evolution of the American theatre is made.The paper focuses on a reading of the American theatrein noticeable depth in order to understand the changes that have happened gradually and the reasons behind these changes. Two of America's famous playwrights and some of their works are explained in order to understand the progress of American Drama and how actually these two playwrights contributed a whole new insight into comprehending drama in a new perspective. Williams and Miller have contributed to the growth of American theatre, and it is probably through them that more of autobiographical stances and incidents emerge in American fiction-drama.A reader, precisely an American reader, could easily relate to situations which the two playwrights have created in their works; and this is because the reader too has witnessed the same situations in reality. Further, the paper also examines various techniques used in the theatre and the changes that have come about with external influences such as colonialism, religion, wars and economy.

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A colleague of mine claimed that he read somewhere that a former secretary of the Swedish Institute, which awards the Nobel prizes— commented that American writers were less likely to win the award since their work was isolated and not representative of universal experience. But Eugene O’Neil and other American playwrights were named Nobel Laureates. Thus, I write this article in defense of the universality of American drama. Beginning with a discussion of what might be regarded as defining elements of universality as it has been rendered in literature, and more specifically how it operates to make drama relevant and significant for world literature, I examine the work of prominent American playwrights as Arthur Miller, O’Neil, Tennessee Williams, Susan Glaspell, and Edward Albee. I argue that their work establishes a precedent for American drama as a particularly representative expression of aspects of a universal human condition. I relate their work to universal contexts. I shed l...

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Arguing that the "Age of Trump" may have begun in the United States well before Donald Trump's election in late 2016, this article identifies five stylistic innovations in the work of a new generation of American playwrights. These innovations concern: 1) dialogue, rendered as simultaneous rather than sequential, and both spoken and silent; 2) identity, seen as naturally fluid, with fixed characters portrayed as trapped in oppression, and actors in confused states of personhood; 3) time & place, also fluid, with a given drama's ostensible fictional setting made uncertain by the unpredictability inherent in performance; 4) speech, expressive of an amorphous collective spirit rather than an autonomous individual psyche; and 5) a critical parody of the self-deluding myths of both American and theatrical culture. Mac Wellman and Suzan Lori-Parks are proposed as innovators of a preceding generation whose work has influenced the present one, which includes playwrights such as

What is really particular about the American theater in the 20th century? In fact, it is only in this century that the American theater knew a brilliant and a new start; it ceased to be a show – only a spectacle – and became an art. To deal with the American theater is to talk about periods, schools, groups, figures, doings and undoings. Though it is not possible to talk about the whole American theater, even within the confines of the 20th century, in a paper like the present one, I consider it possible to render a short synopsis of its general trends and prominent figures, each pretending to be new, but each drawing to a close after a certain period of existence, and paving the stage for something new.

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In this age of rapidly developing high technology and the invasion of corporate culture, American theatre is facing extraordinary challenges. Nevertheless, it seems to be bravely exploring and expanding its territory. This paper examines first the effects shown in actual productions of technological devices and corporate cultural sensibilities in the first and second sections. In the third and fourth sections, it investigates areas of hope for American theatre in the twenty-first century, taking examples from the work of two women playwrights who have courageously created an arena in which the role of drama in American society is reconsidered. Both playwrights deal with current social problems via theatre, in a way no other social institutions at present can do with the same impact. The works discussed here are: Anna Deavere Smith's 1992 play, Fires in the Mirror: Crown Heights, Brooklyn and Other Identities, and Paula Vogel's 1998 Pulitzer-Prize winning play, How I Learned to Drive. 1 I THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY American Theatre magazine, September 1999, includes a special section: "Theatre of Tomorrow," which covers the various impacts hightechnology devices have had on a number of American playwrights. Jennifer Tanaka reports on a "site-specific work in cyberspace" given in New York City in the summer of 1999. "In front of fifty or so New 91

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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN THEATRE AND PERFORMANCE HISTORY is a series devoted to the best of theatre/performance scholarship currently available, accessible, and free of jargon. It strives to include a wide range of topics, from the more traditional to those performance forms that in recent years have helped broaden the understanding of what theatre as a category might include (from forms as diverse as the circus and burlesque to street buskers, stage magic, and musical theatre, among many others). Although historical, critical, or analytical studies are of special interest, more theoretical projects, if not the dominant thrust of a study, but utilized as important underpinning or as a historiographical or analytical method of exploration, are also of interest. Textual studies of drama or other types of less traditional performance texts are also germane to the series if placed in their cultural, historical, social, or political and economic context. There is no geographical focus for this series, and works of excellence of a diverse and international nature, including comparative studies, are sought. The editor of the series is Don B. Wilmeth (Emeritus, Brown University), PhD, University of Illinois, who brings to the series over a dozen years as editor of a book series on American theatre and drama, in addition to his own extensive experience as an editor of books and journals. He is the author of several award-winning books and has received numerous career achievement awards, including one for sustained excellence in editing from the Association for Theatre in Higher Education.

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Modern American Drama Movements, Styles and Impact on Society

Table of Contents

Modern American drama refers to the evolution of theatrical works produced in the United States from the late 19th century to the present day. This period witnessed a transformation of dramatic styles, themes, and techniques, reflecting the changing cultural, social, and political landscape of America.

Early Influences and Beginnings:

Modern American drama can be traced back to the late 19th century when it began to take shape and differentiate itself from the European theatrical traditions. Several key factors influenced its development:

• Realism: The late 19th century saw the rise of dramatic realism in American theater, influenced by European playwrights like Henrik Ibsen. Realism aimed to portray everyday life, ordinary people, and social issues with a focus on naturalistic dialogue and settings. One of the early American realists was William Dean Howells.
• Economic and Social Change: The post-Civil War period brought significant changes to American society, including industrialization and urbanization. These transformations provided playwrights with new material for exploring contemporary issues.
• Experimental Theater: Early 20th-century experimental theaters, like the Provincetown Players, the Washington Square Players, and the Little Theater Movement, provided a platform for innovative and unconventional drama. These theaters allowed emerging playwrights to experiment with new forms and themes.
• The Harlem Renaissance: In the 1920s, the Harlem Renaissance brought African American voices to the forefront of American drama. Playwrights like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and August Wilson contributed to a rich and diverse body of work.

Prominent Playwrights and Their Contributions:

Modern American drama has been shaped by a diverse group of playwrights, each making unique contributions to the development of the art form. Some of the most notable playwrights and their works include:

• Arthur Miller (1915-2005): Miller is renowned for his exploration of social and political issues in plays like “Death of a Salesman” and “The Crucible.” He was a master of psychological drama and often used his work to critique American society.
• Tennessee Williams (1911-1983): Williams is celebrated for his deeply personal and emotionally charged plays, including “A Streetcar Named Desire” and “The Glass Menagerie.” His works often delved into the complexities of human relationships and personal struggles.
• Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965): Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun” was a groundbreaking work that examined race, class, and generational conflicts in America. It was one of the first plays to depict the aspirations and challenges of an African American family.
• Sam Shepard (1943-2017): Shepard’s works, such as “True West” and “Buried Child,” often explored themes of family dysfunction, identity, and the American Dream. He experimented with form and language, contributing to the development of modern American theater.
• Tony Kushner: Kushner is known for his epic two-part play “Angels in America,” which addresses the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and its impact on the LGBTQ community. His work is characterized by its political and social relevance.
• August Wilson (1945-2005): Wilson’s ten-play cycle, often referred to as The Pittsburgh Cycle, chronicled the African American experience in each decade of the 20th century. His work, including “Fences” and “Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom,” is celebrated for its exploration of race, culture, and history.

Also Read- Fireside Poets Background ,Works and Impacts What is Dark Romanticism Theme ,Works and Impact Explain American Romanticism with examples

Significant Movements and Styles:

Modern American drama has witnessed various movements and stylistic shifts, each reflecting the changing times and artistic innovation. Some of the significant movements include:

• Expressionism: In the early 20th century, American drama was influenced by European expressionism, characterized by distorted perspectives, symbolic imagery, and a focus on the inner lives of characters. Eugene O’Neill’s “The Hairy Ape” is an example of this style.
• Theater of the Absurd: Drawing from European playwrights like Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco, American dramatists like Edward Albee (“Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?”) explored the futility of existence, breakdowns in communication, and the absurdity of human behavior.
• Political and Social Theater: The 1960s and 1970s saw an influx of political and socially engaged theater. Playwrights like David Mamet and Larry Kramer addressed issues such as political corruption, the AIDS crisis, and social justice.
• Postmodern Theater: Postmodernism brought a deconstruction of traditional narrative forms and a playfulness with conventions. Playwrights like Christopher Durang and Caryl Churchill experimented with meta-theatrical techniques and non-linear narratives.

Impact on American Culture and Society:

Modern American drama has played a significant role in reflecting and shaping American culture and society. It has:

• Addressed Social Issues: Many playwrights have used their work to tackle pressing social and political concerns, from civil rights and feminism to LGBTQ rights and economic inequality.
• Changed Perceptions: Plays like “A Raisin in the Sun” and “Angels in America” have contributed to changing perceptions and increasing empathy for marginalized communities.
• Explored Identity: American drama has explored questions of identity, from personal identity in family dramas to collective identity in works like August Wilson’s plays.
• Challenged Conventions: Modern American drama has pushed the boundaries of what theater can be, challenging conventional forms, narratives, and themes.
• Provided a Platform for Marginalized Voices: The works of playwrights from diverse backgrounds, such as Lorraine Hansberry, August Wilson, and Tony Kushner, have given voice to marginalized communities and their struggles.

From the late 19th century to the present, American drama has been a dynamic and ever-evolving art form that has influenced and mirrored the country’s political, social, and cultural milieu. As a result of the influence of numerous movements, styles, and playwrights who investigated a broad variety of subjects and plots, it became recognized as a unique genre. Prominent individuals such as Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Lorraine Hansberry, Sam Shepard, Tony Kushner, and August Wilson have made a lasting impact on the theatrical industry by taking on important social issues, questioning norms, and giving voiceless people a forum.

Modern American drama has continuously adapted to changing times and continues to do so, exploring new themes and forms and pushing the boundaries of what theater can be. It remains an important and dynamic force in American culture, offering audiences thought-provoking and emotionally resonant experiences.

What is modern American drama?

Modern American drama refers to the evolution of theatrical works produced in the United States from the late 19th century to the present day. It reflects the changing cultural, social, and political landscape of America and encompasses a wide range of styles, themes, and movements.

Who are some notable playwrights of modern American drama?

Prominent playwrights in modern American drama include Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Lorraine Hansberry, Sam Shepard, Tony Kushner, and August Wilson, among others. Each has made significant contributions to the development of the art form.

What are some key movements and styles in modern American drama?

Modern American drama has seen various movements and stylistic shifts, including realism, expressionism, the theater of the absurd, political and social theater, and postmodern theater. These movements have introduced new forms, themes, and techniques to the theatrical landscape.

How has modern American drama impacted American culture and society?

Modern American drama has played a significant role in addressing social and political issues, changing perceptions, exploring questions of identity, challenging conventions, and providing a platform for marginalized voices. It has had a profound impact on American culture and society by reflecting and shaping its ever-evolving landscape.

Is modern American drama still relevant today?

Yes, modern American drama remains highly relevant today. Contemporary playwrights continue to explore new themes, experiment with forms, and address pressing issues, ensuring that American theater remains a vital and dynamic art form. It continues to captivate and challenge audiences worldwide.

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• Essays on Modern American Drama: Williams, Miller, Albee, and Shepard

In this Book

• Edited by Dorothy Parker
• Published by: University of Toronto Press

Table of Contents

• Front Matter
• Introduction
• Dorothy Parker
• Part One: Tennessee Williams, 1911-1983
• Myth as a Basis of Dramatic Structure in Orpheus Descending
• Nancy Baker Traubitz
• The Composition of The Glass Menagerie: An Argument for Complexity
• Brian Parker
• Realism and Theatricalism in A Streetcar Named Desire
• Mary Ann Corrigan
• The Grotesque Children of The Rose Tattoo
• Leland Starnes
• Part Two: Arthur Miller, 1915-
• All My Sons and the Larger Context
• Barry Gross
• The Fall and After - Arthur Miller's Confession
• C.W.E. Bigsby
• Arthur Miller's The Crucible: Background and Sources
• Robert A. Martin
• Arthur Miller's Incident at Vichy: A Sartrean Interpretation
• Lawrence D. Lowenthal
• Part Three: Edward Albee, 1928-
• Tragic Vision in The Zoo Story
• Robert B. Bennett
• pp. 109-120
• Games People Play in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
• Joy Flasch:
• pp. 121-129
• Curiouser and Curiouser: A Study of Edward Albee's Tiny Alice
• pp. 130-138
• Death as a Mirror of Life: Edward Albee's All Over
• Robbie Odom Moses
• pp. 139-149
• Albee's Seascape: An Adult Fairy Tale
• Lucina P. Gabbard
• pp. 150-160
• Part Four: Sam Shepard, 1943-
• Defusion of Menace in the Plays of Sam Shepard
• Charles R. Bachman
• pp. 163-173
• The Tooth of Crime: Sam Shepard's Way with Music
• Bruce W. Powe
• pp. 174-187
• Mythic Levels in Shepard's True West
• Tucker Orbison
• pp. 188-202
• Sam Shepard's Buried Child: The Ironic Use of Folklore
• Thomas Nash:
• pp. 203-209
• pp. 210-216
• Bibliographical Note
• pp. 217-218

Additional Information

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• Essays on modern American dram...

Essays on modern American drama : Williams, Miller, Albee, and Shepard /

The best of modern American drama is represented in the seventeen essays of this collection. They explore the works of four of the most celebrated playwrights of the twentieth century: Tennessee Williams, Arthur miller, Edward Albee, and Sam Shepard.

• Description
• Table of Contents

Similar Items

• Cover; DOROTHY PARKER: Introduction; Part One: Tennessee Williams, 1911-1983; NANCY BAKER TRAUBITZ: Myth as a Basis of Dramatic Structure in Orpheus Descending; BRIAN PARKER: The Composition of The Glass Menagerie: An Argument for Complexity; MARY ANN CORRIGAN: Realism and Theatricalism in A Streetcar Named Desire; LELAND STARNES: The Grotesque Children of The Rose Tattoo; Part Two: Arthur Miller, 1915-; BARRY GROSS: All My Sons and the Larger Context; C.W.E. BIGSBY: The Fall and After
• Arthur Miller's Confession; ROBERT A. MARTIN: Arthur Miller's The Crucible: Background and Sources
• LAWRENCE D. LOWENTHAL: Arthur Miller's Incident at Vichy: A Sartrean InterpretationPart Three: Edward Albee, 1928-; ROBERT B. BENNETT: Tragic Vision in The Zoo Story; JOY FLASCH: Games People Play in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?; C.W.E. BIGSBY: Curiouser and Curiouser: A Study of Edward Albee's Tiny Alice; ROBBIE ODOM MOSES: Death as a Mirror of Life: Edward Albee's All Over; LUCINA P. GABBARD: Albee's Seascape: An Adult Fairy Tale; Part Four: Sam Shepard, 1943-; CHARLES R. BACHMAN: Defusion of Menace in the Plays of Sam Shepard
• BRUCE W. POWE: The Tooth of Crime: Sam Shepard's Way with MusicTUCKER ORBISON: Mythic Levels in Shepard's True West; THOMAS NASH: Sam Shepard's Buried Child: The Ironic Use of Folklore; Chronology; Bibliographical Note
• Reading modern drama / Published: (2012)
• Theater as problem : modern drama and its place in literature / by: Bennett, Benjamin, 1939- Published: (1990)
• Modern drama : a very short introduction / by: Shepherd-Barr, Kirsten, 1966- Published: (2016)
• Modern American drama, 1945-2000 / by: Bigsby, C. W. E. Published: (2000)

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Essays on Modern American Drama

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• Essay on Theater

A-Level Essay On Modern Day American Drama For Free Use

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Theater , Audience , Stage , United States , America , Art , Public Relations , Drama

Words: 1900

Published: 05/29/2023

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Theater is thought to have started in the 6th century BC in Athens, as a form of classical entertainment (Goldhill 54). At this time, it was predominantly for entertainment, and also to create a catalogue of historical events, or depiction of mythology. This evolved into plays that were categorized as tragedy, comedy and drama, each in forms that we would readily recognize today, were all born out of that early tradition. However, over time, different countries adapted the western art form, to create formulas that more directly address their social concerns, or meet the social need for expression. In America, this includes political elements, and the modernization of drama to create a form of the theater that includes a more American form of comedy, a greater level of diversity in setting and character, and more. Although drama has ancient classical roots, the Modern American Drama has become a distinct form, which focuses on American issues, and takes on a different format, and pacing than traditional European theater.

One area in which the difference between American theater and Classical western theater is most visible is in the staging and the theater styles. The original theaters, or those most commonly associated with famous western plays like those written by Shakespeare, were not like modern theaters today. These theaters, like the Globe, placed the poor in the “pit” directly surrounding the stage, and the rich in boxes, high (Nagler 23). In contrast, however, today, the most expensive seats are on the floor nearest the stage, and the cheapest seats are high up, in the back of the theater, where the views are most obscured by distance (Tripney 1). Further, the actual stage in the Globe theater was known as an “apron stage” which, like a thrust stage, allowed the audience to stand on three sides of the stage at any time, with all actor entrances and exits occurring through small doors at the back of the stage, which entered and exited from the backstage area (Nagler, 23). While the thrust stage is still occasionally used today, modern plays are more often performed on a proscenium stage (Mays 1182). This is a modern stage where the actors perform, essentially inside a room, with the audience sitting on the open side of the room, acting as a “fourth wall” (Mays 1182). This change in the stage also altered staging, and how actors were directed. The classical format, like Shakespearean plays, allowed for a high level of audience participation. The actors were encouraged to directly address the audience. This was, in part, because the stage was centered within the audience, and so the audience was directly involved with the action occurring on the stage. Today, however, the actors interact solely with one another, and almost never with the audience. The audience is observatory, rather than participant. The audience is supposed to practice the art of watching, and recognize something that they identify with, within the performance, rather than becoming directly involved in the performance itself (Woodruff 142). This has also changed the way that sense of place is determined within the play (Mays 1183). While in classic theater, the playwright would directly assign the space, by allowing the chorus, or the narrator, to state the scene, the sets were often less elaborate. For example, in the play Oedipus the King, the whole play took pale before the palace of Thebes (Mays 1183). In contrast, however, modern plays take place in a greater variety of locations with a greater number of sets and set changes, for more elaborate surroundings. This allows for a greater diversity in settings. Further, while classical plays were almost entirely historical in nature, today’s plays take on a wide variety of space and time, including futuristic plays, as well has historical, and current modern settings (Mays 1183). More specifically, American plays have taken on American realism, moving away from depicting courtly scenes in the upper class, and instead focusing on creating a realist setting, that includes the living rooms of middle-income families, and attempt to show American life as it is (Butler 1; Jones 1).

Writing Style and Structure

This move toward modern realism also directly impacts the plot of plays. In Shakespeare’s day, every play was broken into 5 Acts. However, it is important to note that it was acted out without a division, into these acts, and in most cases was divided into act and scene much later, by editors who were dividing the work for printing. Rather, in classical theater, the plays were performed without any interruption (Dessen 95). Yet, in modern plays, they are generally divided into two acts with an intermission for audience comfort. This also allows for the building of tension between the first and second acts, more major change of scenery and costumes, and adherence to a standard modern format which the audience can anticipate (Pavis & Shantz 187; Goodridge 85). While classical plays totaled about 90 minutes, audiences can now anticipate a 90 minute first act, and a slightly shorter, 45 to 60 minute second act. Historically, the earliest dramas were said to have a simple beginning, middle and end (Aristotle 1). However, this was later revised to a five part structure, which included a exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and denouement (Freytag 1). It is this five part structure that is typically used today. Each act is defined by the kind of action occurring within it. Generally, the first act is comprised of the rising action and climax (Sherlock 150). The intermission then occurs directly after the climax, creating increased tension. The second act, then focuses on catharsis and resolution. Within this structure, then, the scenes act as smaller elements, which help define the character, and the way in which the characters are changing, through the story arch (Sherlock 150).

Characterization

The shift toward realism has also changed the characters that are present in modern drama, and the way that they are developed. Characters in the Shakespearean period were predominantly upper-class or upper middle class. Consider, for example Romeo and Juliet, which focuses on two wealthy families, or King Lear, which focuses on a royal household. In contrast, however, modern drama focuses to a larger degree on the everyman, or a mixture of characters from different backgrounds. In fact, Broadway has been praised for leading increased diversity, in terms of both social and ethnic diversity in representation. Of the 15 new musicals that premiered in the 2015-2016 season, 11 featured major cast members of color, and none focused on upper class white social characterizations (Weinberger 1). This is significantly tied to the realism of modern theater, which attempts to depict the world as it is. Just as the world is not made up of the upper class alone, so also modern drama depicts people more diversely. Character development is also more natural, or more real. Shakespeare’s characters follow a predictable character arch, in which tragedy can be expected to end in death, and comedy in resolution (Boas 344). However, modern characters’ end in a variety of ways. Their stories can take place over a greater time span, for many years, and can end in a greater variety of ways (Mays 1184). As such, the dramatist can explore a greater realm of human emotions, and social issues, through the character development and use of realism. Finally, this use of realism and change in characters has changed the way that actors are used. In classic and Shakespearean theater, all of the actors were adult men (Astington 91). However, in modern theater, a mixture of genders and ages are used to represent various characters. More specifically, actors and actresses are generally cast, according to the characteristics that they share with the characters that they portray. Similarly, blackface makeup was once used to depict individuals of color on the stage, but today a growing number of colored, or minority characters are cast a actors who are members of the minorities (Weinberger 1). Overall, the increased realism which is specific to modern American theater have led to a significant number of changes in the theater business. This is significant because it makes the characters relatable, and allows the theater to make shows that are relatable to a variety of audience members. This has also made the theater more socially significant because it contains elements that allow it to provide social commentary, and to make statements of political significance. Overall, this means that the theater is more integrated into modern life, and more tied to what people are going through. Rather than providing strict entertainment, as was provided by Shakespeare’s plays, these plays work to help the public deal with and address current events and major topics of the day.

It is clear that plays have long been socially significant, as they have provided audiences a way to view the world, and to consider important topics. However, as the expectations of audiences, the needs of society, and the patrons of the arts have changed, so have what the theater delivered to audiences. As a result, modern American theater looks and feels very different than historical forms of theater, like Elizabethan and Shakespearean theater, or the classic theater of ancient Greece. More specifically, modern theater has changed the way that plays are staged, to fit modern theater stages, and setting arrangements, changed staging and sets to represent a greater number of time periods and settings, and increased the realism of productions to include characters and issues that affect all social classes. In essence, while there are still elements of the modern theater experience that can be traced back to the Although drama classical roots of the art form, the Modern American Drama has become a distinct type of theater experience, which focuses on American issues, and takes on a different format, and pacing than traditional European theater. As a result, it is better able to express the frustrations, desires, and motivations of American society, and serve as a platform for the American conversation.

Works Cited:

Aristotle. Poetics, Perseus Digital Library, 2010. Web. Astington, John. Actors and Acting in Shakespeare's Time: The Art of Stage Playing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print. Boas, Frederick S. Shakespere and his Predecessors. University manuals. John Murray. OCLC. 2010. 1910. Print. Butler, Issac. “The Great American Living-Room Play Gets a Remodel” The American Theater. 2015. Print. Dressen, Alan C. Rescripting Shakespeare: The Text, the Director, and Modern Productions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002. Print. Freytag, Gustav. Die Technik des Dramas 1863. Print. Goldhill, Simon. The Audience of Athenian Tragedy." The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1997. Print. Goodridge, Janet. Rhythm and Timing of Movement in Performance: Drama, Dance and Ceremony. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 1999. Print. Jones, Janie. “Lecture Notes Week 8” 2016. Web. Mays, Kelly J. The Norton Introduction to Literature (Twelfth Edition) London: Norton. 2016. Print. Nagler, AM. Shakespeare's Stage, Yale: Yale Univeristy Press. 1958. Print. Pavis, Patrice & Shantz, Christine "INTERMISSION". Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1998. Print. Sherlock, Karl. "Plays, Acts and Scenes in Structure". English 160: Drama Writing. Grossmont College Tripney, Natasha. “In theatre, the cheap seats are meant to be just that” The Guardian, 2010. Web. Weinberger, Aliza. “Broadway So diverse.” Mashable. 2016. Print. Woodruff, Paul. The Necessity of Theater: The Art of Watching and Being Watched. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. Print.

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Essays on Modern American Drama

Williams, miller, albee, and shepard.

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• ASIN ‏ : ‎ 0802034349
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ University of Toronto Press (March 1, 1987)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
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• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9780802034342
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0802034342
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 12 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.25 x 0.75 x 9 inches
• #12,460 in Modern Literary Criticism
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