essay on caste system in india

Essay on Caste System for Students and Children

500+ words essay on caste system.

Today the caste system is one of the major issues that people are facing. It is basically a system that separate peoples on the basis of their caste. However, it is a very common issue in India. It is present for a very long time in our country. Many people believe in it and many people don’t. It depends on the thinking and mindset of an individual. Some people are against this system and on the other hand, some are in support of this. It is basically a kind of division between the people.

Problems Due to Caste System

The higher caste children are facing a lot of difficulties in finding jobs. Earlier it was not this difficult to find job. The Scheduled Caste (SCs), Schedule Tribes (STs), and the other backward classes (OBCs) needless grades than a general candidate. This is because they get a reservation and the qualifying marks or grades for them are less as compared to the required marks of a general candidate.

This happens because of the caste system. People say that the Lower caste people deserve and need the reservation. They need it because people treat them unequally because of the discrimination occurring through the caste system. The generals see them as lower category people, not all but many. Many people are still there who don’t believe in the caste system.

Many talented students don’t get admissions in good universities and colleges. This happens because of the reservation given to the lower caste people. They get reserved seats in schools and colleges and they need to study less for the entrance exams as they need fewer marks or less performance as compared to a general student.

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Present Scenario of the Caste System

The interpersonal relations among the members of the various castes are changing for better. Inter caste marriage is still a problem in society. For many people inter-caste marriage is wrong. On the other hand, many people believe that it is not a bad concern. The higher castes are processing either money or education or even both.

Often take lead in the new commercial, administrative and industrial institutions that are now present in the planning era. Thus, those located high in the order of castes. These are still at the top of the bar and the old degrees of the prestige of caste have been replaced by an equivalent degree of economic and social power.

Attempts by the Harijans for exercising the rights provided to them by the constitution have led to attacks on them by the castes that are dominant. They are beaten and also their huts are burning in the fire that is occurring by the dominant class. Moreover, they are coming under the social boycott.

A significant development in the period before the independence of the nation is the emergence of the caste as a political force. In the life of the urban areas, new institutions are rising. In many states, the politics is turning out in caste-politics. When it comes to choosing a candidate the first thing that is considered is the caste.

FAQs on Caste System

Ques.1.Discuss any one problem due to caste system:

Ans. The most faced problem due to the caste system in society is reservation. It is a topic for which many are in favor and many are against as well. It is a major issue today and is also very sensitive.

Ques.2.What impact does the caste system create in society?

Ans. It depends on the thoughts and mindset of every particular person differently. However, it creates thinking in the mind of people because of which they judge people on the basis of the upper and lower class.

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Caste System in India – Origin, Features, and Problems

Last updated on July 15, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

Table of Contents

Jana → Jati → Caste

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The word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese “casta”, means “race, lineage, or breed”. Portuguese employed casta in the modern sense when they applied it to hereditary Indian social groups called as ‘jati’ in India.  ‘Jati’ originates from the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with birth.

According to Anderson and Parker, “Caste is that extreme form of social class organization in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth .”

How did Caste System originate in India: Various Theories

There are many theories like traditional, racial, political, occupational, evolutionary etc which try to explain the caste system in India.

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1.Traditional Theory

According to this theory, the caste system is of divine origin. It says the caste system is an extension of the varna system, where the 4 varnas originated from the body of Bramha.

At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and came from Brahma’s head. Kshatriyas, or the warriors and rulers, came from his arms. Vaishyas, or the traders, were created from his thighs. At the bottom were the Shudras, who came from Brahma’s feet. The mouth signifies its use for preaching, learning etc, the arms – protections, thighs – to cultivate or business, feet – helps the whole body, so the duty of the Shudras is to serve all the others. The sub-castes emerged later due to intermarriages between the 4 varnas.

The proponents of this theory cite Purushasukta of Rigveda, Manusmriti etc to support their stand.

2. Racial Theory

The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which means colour. The caste stratification of the Indian society had its origin in the chaturvarna system – Brahmins, Kashtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Indian sociologist D.N. Majumdar writes in his book, “ Races and Culture in India ”, the caste system took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in India.

Rig Vedic literature stresses very significantly the differences between the Arya and non-Aryans (Dasa), not only in their complexion but also in their speech, religious practices, and physical features.

The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on division of labour and occupation. The three classes, Brahma, Kshatra and Vis are frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda. Brahma and Kshatra represented the poet-priest and the warrior-chief. Vis comprised all the common people. The name of the fourth class, the ‘Sudra’, occurs only once in the Rig Veda. The Sudra class represented domestic servants.

3. Political Theory

According to this theory, the caste system is a clever device invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy.

Dr. Ghurye states, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and then transferred to other parts of India.”

The Brahmins even added the concept of spiritual merit of the king, through the priest or purohit in order to get the support of the ruler of the land.

4. Occupational Theory

Caste hierarchy is according to the occupation. Those professions which were regarded as better and respectable made the persons who performed them superior to those who were engaged in dirty professions.

According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation there came in occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar(blacksmith), Chamar(tanner), Teli(oil-pressers).

5. Evolution Theory

According to this theory, the caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result of a long process of social evolution.

• Hereditary occupations;
• The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure;
• The lack of rigid unitary control of the state;
• The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom
• The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Whereas the Karma doctrine holds the view that a man is born in a particular caste because of the result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of Dharma explains that a man who accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to which he belongs, is living according to Dharma. Confirmation to one’s own dharma also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and violation gives a birth in a lower and poor caste.
• Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship, and the sacramental meal;
• Clash of antagonistic cultures particularly of the patriarchal and the matriarchal systems;
• Clash of races, colour prejudices and conquest;
• Deliberate economic and administrative policies followed by various conquerors
• Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula;
• Foreign invasions;
• Rural social structure.

Note: It is from the post-Vedic period, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra appears as Dvija and Sudra, The first three classes are called Dvija (twice-born) because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. “The Sudra was called “ekajati” (once born).

Note: Caste system developed on rigid lines post Mauryan period , especially after the establishment of Sunga dynasty by Pushyamitra Sunga (184 BC). This dynasty was an ardent patron of ‘Brahminism’. Through Manusmriti, Brahmins once again succeeded in organizing the supremacy and imposed severe restrictions on the Sudras. Manusmriti mentioned that, ‘the Sudra, who insults a twice-born man, shall have his tongue cut out’.

Note: Chinese scholar Hieun Tsang, who visited India in 630 AD , writes that, “Brahminism dominated the country, caste ruled the social structure and the persons following unclean occupations like butchers, scavengers had to live outside the city”.

Principal features of caste system in India

• Segmental Division of Society: The society is divided into various small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well developed social group, the membership of which is determined by the consideration of birth.
• Hierarchy: According to Louis Dumont, castes teach us a fundamental social principle of hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy is the Brahmin caste and at the bottom is the untouchable caste. In between are the intermediate castes, the relative positions of which are not always clear.
• Endogamy: Endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste, i.e. the members of a caste or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. However, hypergamy (the practice of women marrying someone who is wealthier or of higher caste or social status.) and hypogamy (marriage with a person of lower social status) were also prevalent. Gotra exogamy is also maintained in each caste. Every caste is subdivided into different small units on the basis of gotra. The members of one gotra are believed to be successors of a common ancestor-hence prohibition of marriage within the same gotra.
• Hereditary status and occupation: Megasthenes, the Greek traveller to India in 300 B. C., mentions hereditary occupation as one of the two features of caste system, the other being endogamy.
• Restriction on Food and Drink: Usually a caste would not accept cooked food from any other caste that stands lower than itself in the social scale, due to the notion of getting polluted. There were also variously associated taboos related to food. The cooking taboo, which defines the persons who may cook the food. The eating taboo which may lay down the ritual to be followed at meals. The commensal taboo which is concerned with the person with whom one may take food. Finally, the taboo which has to do with the nature of the vessel (whether made of earth, copper or brass) that one may use for drinking or cooking. For eg: In North India Brahmin would accept pakka food (cooked in ghee) only from some castes lower than his own. However, no individual would accept kachcha(cooked in water) food prepared by an inferior caste. Food prepared by Brahmin is acceptable to all, the reason for which domination of Brahmins in the hotel industry for a long time. The beef was not allowed by any castes, except harijans.
• A Particular Name: Every caste has a particular name though which we can identify it. Sometimes, an occupation is also associated with a particular caste.
•   The Concept of Purity and Pollution: The higher castes claimed to have ritual, spiritual and racial purity which they maintained by keeping the lower castes away through the notion of pollution. The idea of pollution means a touch of lower caste man would pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man.
• Jati Panchayat: The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws but also by the conventions. These are openly enforced by the community through a governing body or board called Jati Panchayat. These Panchayats in different regions and castes are named in a particular fashion such as Kuldriya in Madhya Pradesh and Jokhila in South Rajasthan.

Varna vs Caste – The difference

Varna and caste are 2 different concepts, though some people wrongly consider it the same.

Functions of the caste system

• It continued the traditional social organization of India.
• It has accommodated multiple communities by ensuring each of them a monopoly of a specific means of livelihood.
• Provided social security and social recognition to individuals. It is the individual’s caste that canalizes his choice in marriage, plays the roles of the state-club, the orphanage and the benefits society. Besides, it also provides him with health insurance benefits. It even provides for his funeral.
• It has handed over the knowledge and skills of the hereditary occupation of a caste from one generation to another, which has helped the preservation of culture and ensured productivity.
• Caste plays a crucial role in the process of socialization by teaching individuals the culture and traditions, values and norms of their society.
• It has also led to interdependent interaction between different castes, through jajmani relationships. Caste acted as a trade union and protected its members from the exploitation.
• Promoted political stability, as Kshatriyas were generally protected from political competition, conflict and violence by the caste system.
• Maintained racial purity through endogamy.
• Specialization led to quality production of goods and thus promoted economic development. For eg: Many handicraft items of India gained international recognition due to this.

Dysfunctions of the caste system

• The caste system is a check on economic and intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in the way of social reforms because it keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only.
• It undermines the efficiency of labour and prevents perfect mobility of labour, capital and productive effort
• It perpetuates the exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior castes, especially the untouchables.
• It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child-marriage, prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of women etc.
• It opposes real democracy by giving a political monopoly to Kshatriyas in the past and acting as a vote bank in the present political scenario. There are political parties which solely represent a caste. eg: BSP was formed by Kanshi Ram mainly to represent SC, ST and OBC.
• It has stood in the way of national and collective consciousness and proved to be a disintegrating rather than an integrating factor. Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics, reservation in jobs and education , inter-caste marriages etc. eg: Demand for Jat reservation, agitation by Patidar community.
• It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted into Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
• The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change.

Is the caste system unique to India?

The caste system is found in other countries like Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Caste-like systems are also found in countries like Indonesia, China, Korea, Yemen and certain countries in Africa, Europe as well.

But what distinguishes Indian caste system from the rest is the core theme of purity and pollution, which is either peripheral or negligible in other similar systems of the world. In Yemen, there exists a hereditary caste, Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Burakumin in Japan, originally members of outcast communities in the Japanese feudal era, includes those with occupations considered impure or tainted by death.

However, India is unique in some aspects.

• India has had a cultural continuity that no other civilization has had. The ancient systems, religions, cultures of other civilizations have been mostly gone. In India, history is present and even the external empires mostly co-opted the system rather than changing them.
• The caste has been merged into a modern religion, making it hard to remove.
• India has integrated multiple systems more easily. What is known as “caste” in Portuguese/English is actually made of 3 distinct components –  jati, jana, varna.  Jati is an occupational identification. Jana is an ethnic identification. Varna is a philosophical identification. These have been more tightly merged over the centuries.
• In the world’s most transformative period – of the past 3 centuries, India spent most of it under European colonialism. Thus, India lost a lot of time changing. Most of the changes to the system came only in 1950 when India became a republic .

To summarize theoretically, caste as a cultural phenomenon (i.e., as a matter of ideology or value system) is found only in India while when it is viewed as a structural phenomenon, it is found in other societies too.

There are four sociological approaches to caste by distin­guishing between the two levels of theoretical formulation, i.e., cultural and structural, and universalistic and particularistic. These four ap­proaches are cultural-universalistic, cultural-particularistic, structural- universalistic and structural-particularistic.

• Structural-particularistic view of caste has maintained that the caste system is restricted to the Indian society
• Structural-universalistic category holds that caste in India is a general phenomenon of a closed form of social stratification found across the world.
• The third position of sociologists like Ghurye who treat caste as a cultural universalistic phenome­non maintains that caste-like cultural bases of stratifica­tion are found in most traditional societies. Caste in India is a special form of status-based social stratification. This viewpoint was early formulated by Max Weber.
• The cultural-particularistic view is held by Louis Dumont who holds that caste is found only in India.

Is the caste system unique to Hinduism?

Caste-based differences are practised in other religions like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. But the main difference is – caste system in Hinduism is mentioned in its scriptures while other religions adopted casteism as a part of socialization or religious conversions. In other words, the caste system in Hinduism is a religious institution while it is social in others.

As a general rule, higher castes converts became higher castes in other religions while lower caste converts acquired lower caste positions.

• Islam – Some upper caste Hindus converted to Islam and became part of the governing group of Sultanates and Mughal Empire, who along with Arabs, Persians and Afghans came to be known as Ashrafs . Below them are the middle caste Muslims called Ajlafs , and the lowest status is those of the
• Christianity – In Goa, Hindu converts became Christian Bamonns while Kshatriya and Vaishya became Christian noblemen called Chardos. Those Vaishya who could not get admitted into the Chardo caste became Gauddos, and Shudras became Sudirs. Dalits who converted to Christianity became Mahars and Chamars
• Buddhism – various forms of the caste system are practised in several Buddhist countries, mainly in Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Japan where butchers, leather and metal workers and janitors are sometimes regarded as being impure.
• Jainism – There are Jain castes wherein all the members of a particular caste are Jains. At the same time, there have been Jain divisions of several Hindu castes.
• Sikhism – Sikh literature mention Varna  as  Varan , and  Jati  as Zat. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion, states that the  Varan  is described as a class system, while  Zat  has some caste system features in Sikh literature.  All Gurus of Sikhs married within their  Zat , and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages.

Caste Divisions – The future?

The caste system in India is undergoing changes due to progress in education, technology, modernization and changes in general social outlook. In spite of the general improvement in conditions of the lower castes, India has still a long way to go, to root out the evils of the caste system from the society.

References:

• https://www.sociologyguide.com
• Sociology for Nurses by Shama Lohumi
• Indian Social system by Ram Ahuja

Article contributed by: Rehna R. Rehna is a UPSC Civil Services Exam 2016 Rank Holder.

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Reader Interactions

August 18, 2017 at 3:14 pm

wow…..exclnt…

August 18, 2017 at 7:59 pm

August 18, 2017 at 10:29 pm

i would like to receive the new posts updates to my email. i didnt find the option to join or subscribe….

August 19, 2017 at 8:53 am

Hi, Open clearias.com from a new browser (or clear your cache) and you will see the option for free email subscription.

August 29, 2017 at 4:37 pm

Wonderful explanation in all dimensions.

February 11, 2018 at 11:58 am

April 28, 2018 at 11:03 am

very nice.. matter is exactly what i was searching to teach my students..

August 18, 2018 at 9:14 am

You guys must see this video strong message.

https://youtu.be/AKTdd6GgnQw

November 9, 2021 at 7:45 pm

Good balanced writeup. Would have liked some speculation on the future of Caste in India, the appearance of the ‘fifth’ caste of Untouchables etc. But thanks.

December 24, 2021 at 10:02 pm

“All Gurus of Sikhs married within their Zat, and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages.” I would like to recommend a correction in this sentence given in the article. All of the Sikh Gurus condemned the caste system and the concept of endogamous marriages. The tenth Sikh Guru bestowed the last names of Kaur and Singh so that the concept of caste could be removed. Another reason for this was stop the practice of forcing females to take up the surname of their husband after marriage.

March 19, 2022 at 6:47 pm

A pure propaganda without covering any view from the natives and covers only the colonial views and you wonder why the IAS officers hate this country and dont have speck of nationalism. Next some serious question, if caste existed for thousands of years why it has its origin in spanish or porteguse race system? basically it shows europeans shoved their race system in the existing indian social system. So how does it make it a old system it is just a new system created by colonialist but blamed on indians for it. Next Both Varna and Jati are different from colonial caste. It seems govt needs to change syllabus otherwise our country will never develop.

February 4, 2023 at 10:01 pm

Exactly said. Wonder how aspiring IAS candidates are brainwashed with this false information undermining the original societal demarcation, and creating false propaganda. British have created the caste system to create infighting in India. The syllabus needs to change asap to reflect the truth.

January 7, 2023 at 9:13 pm

informative love it, thankyou <3

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CASTE SYSTEM

[2023] Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?

[2020]   Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate your answer with illustrations. 

[2018]   “The caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment.   

[2015]   Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for the assertion of Dalit identity work towards the annihilation of caste.        

Caste is an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior or inferior rank of social esteem in comparison with other such subdivisions and having a common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous community.

A caste system is defined as a system that comprises several endogamous groups, recruited by birth; with hereditary membership, which within the group determines many behaviours, expectations, obligations, and evaluation of individuals.

The caste System entails the ranking of people according to ascribed statuses; provides rules regulating the inter-relationships between members of different castes and creates mutual dependence of the castes through the division of labour

The caste system is underpinned by values of ritual purity and impurity , which justify segregation and division of labour. Eg- only Brahmins can lead religious rituals.

Mahatma Gandhi – If Hindu society has been able to stand, it is because it is founded on the caste system”.

Ambedkar – On caste  

“ Caste is not just a division of labour, it is a division of labourers .”

“ The caste system is not a divine institution. It is a human institution, and it can be changed by human effort.

Karl Marx – In his essay on – ‘The Future Results of British Rule in India’, characterised the Indian castes as “the most decisive impediment to India’s progress and power”.

Ancient age:

• The caste system is associated with the Hindu religion, as per Rig Veda, there were four categories known as ‘varnas’ – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste becomes a rigid institution. 
• It is from the post-Vedic period, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra appears as Dvija and Sudra, The first three classes are called Dvija (twice-born) because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. “The Sudra was called “ekajati” (once born).
• The caste system developed on rigid lines post-Mauryan Period, especially after the establishment of the Sunga dynasty by Pushyamitra Sunga (184 BC). This dynasty was an ardent patron of ‘Brahmanism’.

Colonial times

• Land revenue settlements gave legal recognition to the caste-based rights of the upper class that became landowners in the modern sense.
• The government passed various acts like ‘The Caste Disabilities Removal Act-1850′, ‘The Widow Remarriage Act-1856′, and ‘the Special Marriage Act- , 1872’ which marks the drastic changes in the Caste system.
• Government of India Act 1935 gave legal recognition to the SC and ST by marking out special treatment by the state.
• The caste system was affected by some of the social movements like ‘The Arya Samaj Movement’, ‘The Dev Samaj’ and ‘The Sanatan Dharm Sabha’ and several other social-movements attacked the traditionally established ‘Caste System’.

Post-colonial times

• The enactment of the constitution Article 15 – which ‘Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, sex, place of birth, race and caste’, helped in reduction of the rigidity of the Caste system.
• Though scholars like Majumdar D.N. (l956), Srinivas M.N. (l961), and others have stated that the caste system is fastly changing and is weakening over time, but it is not being disintegrated or abolished.

Sociological Theories related to a caste system

• Racial Theory: As per Herbert Risley, the caste system in India originated with the migration of Indo-Aryans from Persia. The term “varna,” meaning colour, originally distinguished Aryans from the native Dasas. They enslaved the non-Aryans and sometimes married them, leading to the emergence of castes. Offspring from these mixed marriages were considered lower caste.
• Ritual Theory: A person’s caste was identified by the rituals they performed. Eg – Brahmins conducted Vishnu Shanti Yajna, Kshatriyas performed Ashwamedha Yajna, Vaishyas did rituals for personal benefit, and Shudras engaged in graveyard tantricism. This theory was not widely accepted.
• Occupational Theory (Newfield): According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation, there came occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar(blacksmith), Chamar(tanner), and Teli(oil-pressers).
• Evolution Theory: According to this theory, the caste system is the result of a long process of social evolution. Like: Hereditary occupations; The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure; The lack of rigid unitary control of the state; The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom; The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Etc.
• Attributional Approach : Focuses on defining caste by its inherent characteristics, such as endogamy and food taboos, and analyses the structure of relations based on these fixed attributes . J H Hutton’s “Caste in India ” emphasises endogamy and food taboos as central features, influencing caste interactions and restrictions.
• Interactional Approach : Examines the local empirical context and hierarchies, emphasising how ritual and secular factors interact, with an underlying ideology of purity and hierarchy integrating the caste system. Scholars like F.G. Bailey and McKimMarriott highlight how ritual and secular hierarchies overlap. Eg: Bailey’s study of Bisipara village in Orissa shows changes in caste dynamics post-independence when Kshatriyas’ economic decline led to a decrease in their ritual ranking.

Characteristics of Caste System

• Ascriptiveness : Caste is determined by birth, and membership can be revoked for violating caste rules. Marriage is restricted within the same caste. Eg : A person’s caste status and marriage eligibility are set at birth and enforced by the community.
• Endogamy : Marriage within one’s own caste is strictly enforced, prohibiting inter-caste marriages. Eg : Marriages between Brahmins and Dalits are traditionally forbidden.
• Segmental Division/social stratification : Indian society is divided into various castes, each with its own distinct lifestyle and social patterns. Eg : Different castes have specific roles, such as Brahmins as priests and Kshatriyas as warriors.
• Hierarchy : Castes are ranked based on notions of purity and impurity, creating a social ladder. Eg : Brahmins, who perform religious duties, are at the top, while sweepers are at the bottom due to their ‘impure’ work.
• Commensality : Restrictions on eating and drinking with members of other castes, reflecting the caste hierarchy. Eg : A Brahmin may refuse to eat food prepared by a Dalit.
• Socio-Economic Interdependence/Jajmani system : Castes are traditionally associated with specific occupations, creating a system of economic interdependence. Eg : Baniyas, engaged in business, rely on Brahmins for performing rituals.
• Purity and Impurity : Castes are ranked based on ritual purity, which is influenced by occupation, language, dress, and food habits. Eg : Consuming non-vegetarian food or alcohol is considered impure and is associated with lower castes.
• Distinction in Customs : Each caste has distinct customs, language, and dress patterns. Eg : High castes use pure, literary language, while low castes use a local dialect with mixed words.

Difference between caste and varna system

Relevance of caste in understanding indian society, positive aspect.

• It plays a crucial role in the process of socialisation by teaching individuals the culture, traditions, values, and norms of their society.
• Political Dynamics : According to Rajni Kothari , politicisation of caste in India played a very important role in developing party politics. “ Caste needs politics as much as politics needs caste.” Eg- Caste-based political parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
• He also says that caste leads to “secularisation of the social system” . Eg- the emergence of dominant elites with a common secular outlook.
• Understanding Social Stratification : The caste system provides a framework for understanding the hierarchical structure of Indian society, determining social status, roles, and interactions.
• Cultural Identity : Caste identity fosters group cohesion and a sense of belonging, as members of a caste share common customs, rituals, and traditions.
• Economic Organisation : Caste plays a significant role in economic organisation by assigning specific occupations to different castes, ensuring specialisation and continuity of skills and trades.
• Social Mobility and Change : The concept of “Sanskritization” shows how lower castes adopt higher caste practices to improve their status, illustrating the potential for social mobility within the caste system. Eg. Gond tribe ruling clan became Raja Gond
• Social Control and Norm Enforcement : The caste system enforces social norms and discipline through concepts of ritual purity and impurity, with caste panchayats (local councils) upholding these norms.
• Marriage and Kinship Patterns : Endogamy (marriage within the same caste) helps maintain social boundaries and purity, ensuring that caste lines remain distinct and cultural traditions are preserved.
• Religious Functions : Caste is closely linked to religious functions, with specific castes assigned particular religious roles and duties, reinforcing social hierarchy.
• Modernization and Continuity : Caste remains relevant in modern society by adapting to changes such as urbanisation and education, while retaining traditional roles and structures, especially in rural areas. Eg. Caste based Matrimonial apps

Negative aspect (Dysfunctions of the caste system)

• The caste system is a check on economic-intellectual advancement and social reforms because it keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only.
• It undermines the efficiency of labor and prevents perfect mobility of labor , capital, and productive effort
• It perpetuates the exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior castes, especially the untouchables. Eg- 90% of manual scavengers in India are Dalits
• It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, seclusion of women, etc. Eg- honor killings in Haryana
• Vote Bank Politics – It opposes real democracy by giving political monopoly to certain castes historically and acting as a vote bank in modern politics. Eg- Emergence of dominant castes.
• Hindrance to National Unity – Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics, reservation in jobs and education , inter-caste marriages etc. eg: Demand for Jat reservation, and agitation by the Patidar community.
• It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted to Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
• An obstacle to Modernization – The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change. Eg- ban on wearing jeans for girls in Khap Panchayats. 

Need for eradication of caste

• Constitutional vision- our constitution envisions the eradication of caste through Article 15 and 17 ( against discrimination and untouchability).
• Equality- it is our Fundamental right under Article 14 ensures equal treatment before the law which will help reduce socio-economic disparities among different castes.
• Human Rights – Protects the inherent dignity of every individual. Aligns with global human rights principles and treaties. It will aid in reconstructing social identities beyond caste boundaries.
• Social Mobility : eradication will help in social empowerment, economic progress, and increasing quality of education irrespective of caste. It will help break down rigid caste barriers.
• Inclusive growth – it will promote Social Cohesion and reduce caste-based conflicts.
• Socialization : Educates future generations to move away from caste-based discrimination.

Changes in the caste system

• Marriage – Increased education has resulted in the weakening of certain marriage rules and a rise in inter-caste marriage: Inter-caste marriages on Western models have become more common in recent years due to economic and social necessity. Eg. Less than 10%
• Political Mobilization- Caste groups have organized politically to gain representation and rights, changing the power dynamics within society.
• The invisibility of caste: The caste system now appears to be invisible for upper castes, urban middle and upper classes, as the urban class has become more important than the upper caste. Eg. Harold Gould’s study of Lucknow rikshaw alas showed they are secular at work but follow caste rules at home like rituals, endogamy, etc
• Decline in Brahmin supremacy as a result of the secularisation and westernization processes. Eg. Satyashodhak marriages doesn’t involve Brahmin priests
• Emergence of dominant caste: With changing social caste equations, a few castes are emerging as dominant castes, and they play a crucial role in politics. Eg- the Jats of Haryana, the Yadavs of Bihar, and the Marathas of Maharashtra.
• Changes in commensality: People are no longer restricted to their original locations. Due to their migration, it is quite challenging to adhere to the rules regarding their eating habits.
• Occupational changes: In a caste-ridden society, occupations were hereditary, however, with industrialization and modernization the rigidity of the caste system has broken down, which led to occupational changes
• Attitudinal changes: Within the system, there have been noticeable changes in how people feel about castes. This has to do with losing faith in the system’s own ascriptive pattern and jurisdiction.
• Visibility of caste: With more politics and caste nexus, caste identity is gaining prominence in society. It has become a tool of vote bank politics. Eg- Bahujan Samaj Party in India
• Caste has grown beyond Hinduism : In fact, caste is an important factor for marriage, death, and other ceremonial rites even among Muslims and Christians. Eg: For Dalits converting to Christianity, states like Kerala have separate community names, separate cemeteries, etc.
• Politicisation of caste
• Caste Associations – organizations like Maratha Mahasangh and Jat Mahasabha work towards addressing the socio-economic issues faced by their respective communities.
• Professional Networks – Professional networks based on caste help members connect, share opportunities, and support each other in career advancement. Eg- The dalit chamber of commerce
• Economic Cooperatives – Eg- Weaver cooperatives among the Langa caste in Andhra Pradesh support traditional handloom weavers by providing raw materials and marketing their products.
• Social media and online platforms have become new spaces for caste-based identity formation, advocacy, and community building. Eg- #jaibheem trend
• Caste-based NGOs – Eg- Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat works to eliminate discrimination against Dalits and improve their socio-economic conditions.
• Caste identities are reinforced through reservation policies in educational institutions, creating a sense of solidarity among students from similar backgrounds. Eg- Student groups and organisations in universities, like the Ambedkar Students’ Association.
• Urban Migration and New Caste Identities – Eg- In Chennai, Nadar migrants have formed strong networks and associations, such as the Nadar Mahajana Sangam.  In areas like Dharavi, Bihari migrants have established support groups that provide assistance with housing, employment opportunities, and community support. 

Reasons for change

• Sanskritization (M.N. Srinivas) 
• Legal Reforms – Abolition of untouchability (Article 17), affirmative action policies like reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs in education and employment are aimed at eradicating caste-based discrimination and promoting equality.
• Educational Advancements – Reservation in educational institutions has enabled marginalized communities to pursue higher education and secure professional jobs.
• Economic Development – Economic liberalization and growth have created new job opportunities, reducing reliance on traditional caste-based occupations.
• Urbanization – Migration to urban areas has diluted rigid caste distinctions and fostered more merit-based interactions. Eg – In cities, people from diverse caste backgrounds live and work together, leading to a decrease in caste-based segregation.
• Westernization and Modernisation: Modernisation has caused the caste system to become more flexible due to its scientific outlook, rational attitudes, industrialization, urbanization, high standard of living, and broad viewpoint.
• Globalization- Globalization has introduced new cultural values and economic opportunities that challenge traditional caste roles. Exposure to global ideas of equality and human rights has influenced younger generations to question caste-based practices.
• Democratic decentralization: Through the introduction of Panchayati Raj, local self-government has been created in the villages. The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has allowed the lower castes to empower themselves.
• Dominant caste – castes with large populations granted land rights through partial land reforms after Independence. This led to their significant economic, political, and social power in their regions. Eg- Yadavs in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Reddys and Kammas in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Vokkaligas, and Lingayats in Karnataka
• Social Movements – Social movements led by marginalized communities have raised awareness and demanded equal rights. Eg – Movements like the Dalit Panthers and leaders like B.R. Ambedkar have been instrumental in advocating for the rights of lower castes.
• Media Influence – Media coverage and social campaigns have highlighted caste-based issues and promoted social equality. Eg – Movies, literature, and campaigns against practices like manual scavenging have brought greater attention to caste injustices.

Continuity in the Caste System

• Marriage Practices – Endogamy, or marriage within the same caste, remains a strong social norm, reinforcing caste boundaries. The share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. Eg- matrimonial advertisements demand brides and grooms from particular communities.
• Residential and social segregation/Ghettoisation based on caste continues to exist, particularly in rural areas. In many villages, Dalits live in separate areas and are often denied access to common resources like wells and temples.
• Caste-based Occupations – Traditional caste-based occupations persist, especially in rural areas, where many still follow hereditary professions. Eg- manual scavenging 
• Educational Inequities – Despite affirmative action policies, disparities in educational attainment persist along caste lines. According to the Census 2011, the literacy rate in India was 73% but literacy rate for SCs was 66.1% and for STs was even lower at 59%.
• Economic Inequality – Dalits and Adivasis are overrepresented among the poor and underrepresented in higher-income occupations and business ownership. In 83.55% of Scheduled Caste (SC) households and 86.53% of Scheduled Tribe (ST) households, the highest-earning member earns less than Rs 5,000 per month. Dalit and Adivasi households earn 21% and 34% less than the national average annual household income, respectively, while Upper Caste households earn nearly 47% more than this average
• Caste-based violence and discrimination remain prevalent, with instances of atrocities against lower castes reported frequently. Eg- National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported a 1.2% increase in crimes against Dalits in 2021
• Cultural Practices – reservation of priest positions to Brahmins. Certain religious rituals and temple roles are restricted to specific castes, reinforcing traditional social order.

Reasons for the Continuance of Caste-Based Discrimination in the Modern Age:

• Endogamy – share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. A 2022 survey found that 50% of Indians still hold prejudices against inter-caste marriages (Pew Research Center).
• Caste Prestige: A sense of superiority within one’s caste leads to loyalty towards their own caste and often results in disrespect towards lower castes. Eg- 70% of rural Indians still adhere to caste-based rituals and customs (Oxfam India, 2021).
• Urbanisation Impact : Urbanisation indirectly supports casteism. Migrants from rural areas to urban centres often seek support from their caste groups, reinforcing caste ties.
• Transport and Communication : Improved transport and communication facilitate the organisation of caste groups and spread casteist sentiments through newspapers and other media . Eg- Kshatriya Mahasabha
• Illiteracy : Illiteracy fosters reliance on religious dogmas, customs, and superstitions. Practices like ‘Jati Dharma’ lead to negative reactions to anti-caste movements. Eg- religious justifications continue to underpin caste-based discrimination.
• Social Segregation – Segregated Dalit neighborhoods have 28% fewer public schools and 35% fewer healthcare facilities (Feminism in India, 2023).
• Economic Dependencies – Many traditional caste-based occupations still exist, perpetuating economic dependencies and social hierarchies.
• Political Exploitation – Caste is often used as a tool for political mobilization, with parties appealing to caste-based vote banks. Eg- Maratha-OBC divison in Maharashtra
• Ineffective Legal Enforcement – Despite laws against caste discrimination, enforcement is weak, and perpetrators often go unpunished. As per NCRB data, Only 25% of reported caste-based crimes result in convictions.

Difference between Urban and rural caste system Dalit movements

Ghanshyam Shah classifies Dalit movements into two categories: reformative and alternative . Reformative movements aim to reform the caste system to address the problem of untouchability. In contrast, alternative movements seek to create a new socio-cultural structure through religious conversion, education, economic advancement, and political power.

• This movement in 15th century was a popular movement which treated all sections of society equally and it developed two traditions of Saguna and Nirguna.
•  It became more popular among the dalits in urban areas in the early 20th century as it promised social equality and provided the possibility of s alvation for all. 
•  These movements attempted to remove untouchability by taking the dalits into the fold of the caste system. Eg- Arya Samaj
• Some  neo-Vedantic movements and non-Brahmin movements played catalytic role in developing anti-caste or anti Hinduism dalit movements in some parts of the country. Eg- Satyashodhak Samaj and self-respect movements in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Adhi Dharma and Adi Andhra movement in Bengal and Adi-Hindu movement in Uttar Pradesh
• Sanskritisation Movement – Dalit leaders pursued ‘Sanskritization’ to elevate their caste status by adopting Brahman customs such as vegetarianism, wearing sandalwood paste on the forehead, and donning the sacred thread. Leaders like Swami Thykkad (Kerala), Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar (UP), Muldas Vaishya (Gujarat), and Moon Vithoba Raoji Pande (Maharashtra) embraced these higher caste cultural norms.
• Gandhi’s Contribution- Gandhi advocated for the upliftment of untouchables, founding the Harijan Sevak Sang in 1932. Emphasized social equality and removal of untouchability from Hinduism.
• Ambedkar’s Contribution – Ambedkar led movements for Dalit rights, such as the Satyagraha for water access in Mahad (1927) and temple entry in Nasik (1930). Founded the Scheduled Castes Federation to promote political and social rights for Dalits.
• B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhist Dalit Movement – First Law Minister, Chair of the Constitution Drafting Committee, ensured civil liberties and abolition of untouchability. Advocated for and led mass conversions to Buddhism as a means of Dalit emancipation; converted himself and 500,000 followers in 1956.
• Dalit Panthers – Established by Namdeo Dhasal, J.V. Pawar, and Arun Kamble in 1972 in Maharashtra. Influenced by Ambedkar, Phule, Marx, and inspired by the Black Panther Party; emphasized militancy and revolutionary attitudes.
• Contribution of Kanshi Ram – Founded Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984 to uplift Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, OBCs, and religious minorities. Emphasized “Social Transformation and Economic Emancipation” through education and organization, inspired by Ambedkar and other Dalit leaders.
• Changing Dalit Consciousness – According to S S Dube,  dalit consciousness in traditional India was a challenge to orthodox Brahmanism and Hindu values whereas  in contemporary India, Dalit identity is more a matter of search for rights, justice and equality rather than just being concerned with rebellion against Hinduism. Eg- protest against death of Rohit Vemula.
• Political Assertion – According to Andre Betielle, Dalit mobilization in contemporary India is greatly driven by political interest rather than by discriminatory cultural past. Eg- Bhim Army
• Yogendra Singh equates Dalit consciousness with class consciousness to bring forward the view that Dalit mobilization in India is driving Indian society in the direction of modernization giving importance to the principles of equality against the principle of hierarchy.
• Increased Militancy: This trend reflects a growing frustration with persistent discrimination and a demand for more immediate and tangible changes. Eg- Elgar Parishad and subsequent violence in Bhima Koregaon in 2018
• Sub-caste Assertion: This trend highlights the diversity within the Dalit community and addresses intra-caste inequalities and discrimination. Eg- Matang Samaj Sangharsh Samiti
• Middle-class Activism: This group uses its resources and education to advocate for Dalit rights and to challenge systemic inequalities. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI)
• Public Symbolism: The use of symbols, public rallies, and cultural events has become more prominent in the Dalit movement. This help in raising awareness, fostering unity, and keeping the issues of Dalit rights in the public eye. Eg- celebration of Ambedkar Jayanti
• Rightward Shift: This shift involves aligning with political parties or ideologies that promise economic development and social mobility, albeit sometimes at the cost of broader social justice goals. Eg- Republican Party of India (Athawale) faction

Positive impact

Social Mobility and Empowerment

• Increased Representation : Eg- Ram Nath Kovind
• Educational Opportunities : Reservation policies have increased Dalit enrollment in higher education. In 2022, over 14% of students in higher education institutions belonged to Scheduled Castes (SC).
• Economic Upliftment : The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) reports that there are now over 5,000 Dalit-owned enterprises contributing significantly to the economy. Eg- Kalpana Saroj, CEO of Kamani Tubes

Reduction of Social Discrimination

• Abolition of Untouchability : Legal reforms like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, have led to a reduction in practices of untouchability.
• Awareness and Advocacy : Movements such as the Dalit Panthers have raised awareness and advocated for Dalit rights, leading to a more inclusive society .

Cultural Revival and Identity Formation

• Cultural Assertion : The contributions of Dalit leaders and activists are now more widely recognized and celebrated, leading to a broader acceptance and respect for Dalit identity.
• Literary Contributions : Dalit assertion has led to the revival and preservation of Dalit culture and history, promoting pride in their heritage and countering negative stereotypes. Eg- writers like Omprakash Valmiki and artists like Sudarshan Shetty

Political Mobilization and Activism

• Political Organisations : The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) has mobilised Dalits politically, helping them secure political representation and influence .
• Grassroots Movements: Movements like the Ambedkarite movement have empowered local Dalit communities to fight against caste injustices .

Legal Reforms and Constitutional Safeguards

• Legal Framework : Laws such as the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act have provided legal recourse for Dalits facing caste-based violence .

Societal Attitudes and Norms

• Changing Mindsets : Dalit movements have contributed to changing societal attitudes towards caste, promoting more inclusive and egalitarian values.
• Inter-Caste Interactions : Increased social interactions between different castes have led to a gradual reduction in caste-based prejudices .

Dalit issues entrenched in:

Political domain.

• Political Fragmentation – Internal tensions and disintegration within the Dalit movement, as well as its incapacity to shape public policy. Eg- multiple factions of Republic Party of India
• Leadership crisis – the Dalit movement lacks discipline and coherence and has remained fractured and episodic, lacking a pan-Indian Dalit identity and ideology.

Social Domain:

• Caste-Based Discrimination : Dalits face discrimination in various aspects of social life, including access to public spaces, inter-caste marriages, and social interactions. This discrimination is deeply ingrained and continues to affect the daily lives of Dalits. Eg- As per NCRB , More than 1.9 lakh cases of crime against dalits were registered against Dalits in last 4 years.
• Social Exclusion leading to a sense of alienation and marginalisation. Eg- Dalits are prohibited from entering temples or participating in religious ceremonies in many areas.
• Violence and Intimidation especially when they assert their rights or challenge caste-based norms. Eg- Una Flogging case

Economic Domain:

• Occupational Segregation : Due to historical discrimination and contemporary biases, dalits are often relegated to low-paying and menial jobs, perpetuating their economic marginalisation. Eg- A 2019 media analysis by the CSDS revealed that Dalits are underrepresented in Indian media, comprising less than 5% of journalists.
• Landlessness and Displacement : The Agricultural Census of 2015-16 reported that Dalits own only about 9% of the total agricultural land. According to data published by the Census of India, 71% Dalits are landless labourers who work on land they do not own. In rural areas, 58.4% Dalit households do not own land at all. 
• Limited Access to Education and Skills: literacy level among Dalits is pegged at 66.1 per cent, far below the national average of 73 per cent (Census of India 2011).

Cultural Domain:

• Cultural Stigma : Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, in his writings, highlighted how Hindu religious texts and rituals propagate the idea of Dalits being ‘untouchable’ and impure. This cultural stigma is a significant barrier to social mobility and equality. These stereotypes are perpetuated through literature, media, and popular culture, reinforcing caste-based prejudices.
• Exclusion from Cultural Spaces : Dalits are often excluded from mainstream cultural spaces and events, which are dominated by upper castes. This exclusion reinforces their marginalisation and limits their opportunities for cultural expression.
• Cultural Appropriation : N. Sukumar, argues that cultural appropriation by dominant castes erases the unique identity of Dalit traditions and commodifies and dilutes their cultural significance. Eg- A study by the Ambedkar University Delhi in 2022 found that many traditional Dalit art forms, such as the ‘Parai’ drumming and ‘Madiga’ leatherwork, have been co-opted by upper-caste artists and commercialized. 

Structural Domain:

• Caste-Based Hierarch – The caste system in India is a deeply entrenched social structure that perpetuates systemic inequalities and hierarchies. According to the 2019 India Human Development Survey, Dalits constitute over 16% of the population but hold only 5% of top positions in business and government sectors.
• Lack of Access to Justice : International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) reports that less than 2 percent of rape cases against Dalit women result in convictions, compared to around 25 per cent against women in India generally.
• Institutional Discrimination : Sociologist Gopal Guru highlights that institutional discrimination against Dalits is not just a result of individual prejudices but is embedded in the structural functioning of these institutions. This form of discrimination is often subtle but pervasive, making it difficult for Dalits to overcome systemic barriers.

A comprehensive approach to solve the issue

• Developing an alternative epistemological worldview model based on alternative culture, philosophy, identities, psychology, and outlook. This can be done by celebrating Dalit culture (Dravidian culture), Dalit civilisation (Indus civilisation), Dalit spirituality (Buddhism), Dalit writings (protest literatures), and Dalit philosophy (Charvak-Lokayat philosophy)
• Legal Reforms and Enforcement : Improving the training of police officers and sensitization in dealing with atrocity cases along with increasing awareness about several legal remedies and different rights available to the marginalised community.
• Education and Awareness : Promoting education and awareness programs to challenge caste-based prejudices and stereotypes. Eg- The Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat runs education and awareness programs to empower Dalit communities and challenge discrimination.
• Economic Empowerment : Dalit-focussed alternate investment finance (AIF) and private equity (PE) funds along with creation of an inclusivity cell in banks and lending institutions/NBFCs in order to inform, educate and foster Dalit entrepreneurship.
• constituting fast track courts for giving immediate justice to the victims;
• accelerating the “skill development” program so that the disprivileged community can acquire alternate skills; and, lastly 

The judiciary and executive branches should reaffirm their commitment to upholding individuality and fundamental equality, particularly for the underprivileged within traditional groups. For ex- In Surya Narayan Chaudhury v. State of Rajasthan, SC prohibited temples from discriminating against Dalits’ right to worship and enter the sacrosanct spaces. Economic Empowerment of Marginalised Communities through schemes such as Stand-Up India, PMKVY, and Mudra Yojana, along with 2nd generation land reforms for more equitable distribution of land, and collaboration and dialogue among Civil Society organisations, government agencies, and marginalised communities to address caste discrimination.

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Caste System in India, Origin, Theories, Features & Effects

Caste System in India is divided into different categories often known as Jatis. Read all about Caste System in India, its Origin, Categorization, Theories, Features & Effects for UPSC Exam.

Table of Contents

Caste System in India

Indian society has been plagued by the caste system since ancient times, which is a societal ill. The caste system has drawn criticism for years, but it continues to dominate our nation’s social and governmental structure. The caste system is one of the social ills that have persisted in Indian society for millennia. The  UPSC Syllabus includes Caste System as a significant topic for UPSC Exam. The UPSC Mock Test  can help candidates prepare for the exam with more precision.

Caste System Definition

Caste System is characterized as a system of hierarchical grouping of individuals according to their social status and line of work. Caste-based societal segregation, which is a part of Indian society’s history and culture, is what distinguishes this large and varied nation. In Indian culture, a person is identified by their caste, which also determines their social standing.

The karma and dharma of the people are used to create caste groups in accordance with the Indian caste system. People typically perceive “upper caste” people as better and “lower caste” people as inferior. Since ancient times, India’s caste structure has resulted in blatant discrimination against those who belong to the “lower caste.”

Caste System in India Origin

The ancient Vedic society is where the Indian caste structure has its roots (c. 1000–500 BCE). It has endured throughout the Classical Period, the Middle Ages, the Mughal Era, and British Rule. Many people consider it to be a crucial way to categorise Indian culture. However, a lot of people also criticize India’s caste system for treating those who are considered to be in the “lower castes” unfairly and unfairly.

The history of the Caste System in India is such as:

• The dominant classes in society were colour-coded by the varna system during the Classical Period (320–650 CE).
• The caste structure was well established by the Middle Ages (650–1400 CE).
• The Indian caste structure persisted even during the Mughal Era (1000–1750 CE). Due to the social discrimination, they experienced, some members of the caste system converted to Islam.
• British Rule (1857–1947): During this time, the British attempted to change society and address some of the injustices that the so-called “lower caste” people experienced.

Caste System in India Sociology

The Indian caste structure divides society into numerous small groups known as castes. Each social group has its own autonomy, and members are determined by the birth process. Every caste has its own set of laws, traditions, and ceremonies. There is a hierarchy in the caste system. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras are the four main castes, with Brahmins at the top and Sudras at the lowest of the ranking.

Based on gotras, each clan is subdivided into smaller groups. Therefore, there are four major castes, each of which has a few smaller subgroups. The endogamy custom is enforced in India by the caste structure. It permits its members to marry other social members. Even if a person’s occupation, wealth, or level of education shifts, their caste, which is determined at birth, does not. Additionally, in India, the choice of employment is based on the system of castes. The caste system is fundamentally based on the ideas of pollution and cleanliness. People who believe that “lower caste” individuals are naturally inferior to them because of their caste engage in discrimination against them.

India has a total of four classes. The caste to which a person belongs is decided by their birth. According to popular belief, people with good karma and dharma are born into “upper castes.” The names of each caste in India’s caste structure are listed below:

Caste System in India and Different Theories

Traditional theory.

This hypothesis holds that the caste structure is a divine creation. It claims that the caste system is a development of the varna system, in which the four varnas are said to have descended from Bramha’s body. The Brahmins, who hailed from Brahma’s head and were primarily educators and intellectuals, were at the pinnacle of the social order. From his limbs emerged the Kshatriyas, or warriors and kings.

His thighs were used to make the traders or vaishyas. The Shudras, who descended from Brahma’s soles, were at the bottom. The Shudras’ obligation is to service everyone else, as the mouth represents its use for preaching, learning, etc., the arms serve as protection, the thighs are used for work or business, and the feet support the entire body. Sub-castes subsequently developed as a result of inter-varna marriages among the four varnas.

Racial Theory

The term “caste” in Sanskrit is “varna,” which also means “color.” The chaturvarna system, which distinguished between Brahmins, Kashtriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, is where the stratification of caste in Indian culture first emerged. In his work “Races and Culture in India,” Indian sociologist D.N. Majumdar claims that the caste system emerged following the arrival of Aryans. Rig Vedic literature places a strong emphasis on the distinctions between Arya and non-Aryans (Dasa), including their speech, religious customs, and physical characteristics.

The division of labour and occupation served as the foundation for the Varna system, which was in use during the Vedic era. In the Rig Veda, the three classes Brahma, Kshatra, and Vis are commonly mentioned. The poet-priest and warrior-chief were symbolized by Brahma and Kshatra, respectively. Vis included every member of the populace. Only once in the Rig Veda does the word of the fourth class, the “Sudra,” appear. Sudras were considered household workers.

Political Theory

This theory holds that the Brahmins devised the caste system as a cunning means of elevating themselves to the top of the social scale. According to Dr. Ghurye, caste is a Brahminic offspring of Indo-Aryan culture that was raised in the Ganges region before being spread to other regions of India. In order to win the king’s favour, the Brahmins even added the idea of the king’s spiritual merit through the priest or purohit.

Caste System in India Features

The caste of the household a person is born into determines his or her caste. It typically runs in families. No matter what one’s societal standing, caste is immutable. A person’s caste status is inherited at birth.

In a hierarchy, various castes are arranged on the higher and lower strata according to where they fall on the caste ladder. It demonstrates who is viewed as being dominant and inferior. Brahmins hold the top spot on this scale, while untouchables hold the bottom spot. The intermediate classes lie between the Brahmins and the Untouchables. Brahmins hold the top spot on this scale, while untouchables hold the bottom spot. The intermediate classes lie between the Brahmins and the Untouchables.

This alludes to the custom whereby people are required to wed members of their own caste. It is not advised to get married outside of one’s tribe. Those who break the law risk being shunned or losing their caste standing. But these regulations are progressively altering.

Untouchability

The act of excluding a group from society through societal exclusion is known as ostracism. The caste system had a corollary known as “untouchability,” where people from the lowest caste divisions were seen as impure and polluted.

Manual Scavenging

Manual scavenging, which entails removing untreated human excreta from pit toilets or bucket toilets, ultimately developed into a caste-based profession. The 2013 Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act formally ended it.

Caste-based Violence

Instances of inter-caste marriage and Dalit assertion of fundamental rights, such as land rights, freedom of speech, access to justice, and access to education, are linked to an increase in caste-based violence.

Caste System in India Effects

The social system’s worst result is this. The idea of untouchability was encouraged by the caste structure. People from lower castes or those who worked in low-paying professions were regarded as untouchables. They were not permitted to access wells and ponds used by higher castes or go to temples. Children of lower castes were not permitted in schools, preventing them from accessing an education, in order to protect upper caste students from being contaminated by their shadow and touch.

People from lower castes experience prejudice in different ways. They were not regarded equally with members of the upper caste. They were not permitted to eat or socialise with members of the upper caste. Additionally, they were mistreated and their traditions and customs were denigrated. Lower caste individuals have experienced a great deal of abuse, including bonded labor, harassment, and other practices, all of which are based solely on caste.

People from different castes become aware of their caste and consequently have a tendency to uphold and defend their caste’s interests, which eventually undermines national cohesion and integrity. The country hasn’t been able to develop evenly because some castes had access to different government facilities while those who belonged to lower castes faced discrimination. However, things are improving as the disadvantaged are now receiving developmental services.

Women in the group suffered the most negative effects of the caste structure. They were expected to follow all of the traditional and societal norms that marginalized them. On the one hand, lower caste women experienced physical and sexual harassment by upper caste men, while upper caste women confronted child marriage and widowhood at a younger age. To put it briefly, the social system exacerbated the miserable position of women in society.

History provides proof that the caste system’s flaws contributed to Hinduism’s demise and the emergence of other faiths. Hinduism was eventually weakened and defamed as a result of those who experienced discrimination due to its caste system choosing to disregard it. Numerous individuals who experienced prejudice and exploitation under the Hindu caste system decide to convert to other faiths, such as Islam and Christianity, which fuels further religious prejudice and hostility between various groups of people.

Caste System in India UPSC

The caste system is a dreadful social anomaly that has grown more pervasive over time. It occasionally harms the nation’s economy and social fabric and is a fierce opponent of the idea of social justice stated in the Indian Constitution. It is unquestionably the duty of the average person, religious authorities, politicians, and civil society to address this disparity as soon as feasible in addition to the government. Students can read all the details related to UPSC by visiting the official website of StudyIQ UPSC Online Coaching.

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Caste System in India FAQs

What are the 5 castes in india.

Four castes are the Brahmins (priests, teachers), Kshatriyas (rulers, warriors), Vaishyas (landowners, merchants) and Sudras (servants), and the 5th group is the group of the untouchables, called Dalits.

Who introduced caste system in India?

Caste system originated 1,575 years ago, during the Gupta dynasty, possibly during the reign of Chandragupta the Second or Kumaragupta the First.

What are the 6 castes in India?

• Brahmins • Kshatriyas. • Vaishyas • Shudras. • Adivasi • Dalits.

Which is the 1 highest caste in India?

In a hierarchical system generally the Brahmins were at the head of the hierarchy.

Which is the biggest caste in India?

Brahmin is a varna as well as a caste within the Hindu society.

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Caste System Essay

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Caste system in India

Categories: Society: Diverse Elements, Published: 24th May, 2022

Introduction:

The caste system is an important aspect of Indian social institutions. The word caste has created confusion in the sense that it is used to denote both Varna and Jati. Technically, both are different to each other. Several changes have occurred in the caste system due to the processes of Sanskritisation, westernization, modernization, democratic decentralization, industrialization and urbanization, etc.

Concept and Meaning of Caste System:

• The word caste has its origin in the Spanish word 'casta', meaning 'race', or a group having hereditary quality'. The term was applied to the people of India by the Portuguese to denote ‘Jati'. Caste can be defined caste as a hereditary, endogamous and usually localized group, having a traditional association with an occupation, and occupying a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are determined by the rules of purity and pollution and hence there are restrictions on commensality (inter-dining) and social intercourse among castes.

Features of Caste System:

• Segmental division of society
• Restrictions on inter-dinning
• Purity and pollution
• Occupational association, etc.
• Social and religious disabilities and privileges of a few sections -
• The distinction in custom, dress and speech.
• Conflict resolving mechanisms.

Difference between Varna and Jati:

• Varna and Jati : Varna means colour. Varna Vyavastha is the textual view of the Indian social system whereas Jati is the field view. In other words, we find jatis, in reality, today and not varnas. There are only four varnas whereas there are about 4000 jatis.

Difference between Caste and Class:

• While a caste is hereditary, a class is non-hereditary in nature. A class system allows both exogamy and endogamy, permits mobility either up or down the system, and also allows an individual to remain in the status to which he was born. Thus a class is primarily based on socio-economic criteria.
• A class is more open than the caste in the sense that mobility is allowed in the class system. It is not allowed openly in the caste system. Further, the caste system is based on ritual criteria whereas, class is based on a secular criterion. Ritual criterion means it is based on religious myths, secular means non-religious criterion like economic, political and social criterion.
• In changing circumstances caste is also adapting to secular criteria, Consciousness is found in the class but not necessarily in the caste. However, today castes are also changing into classes in urban areas, particularly in terms of economic criteria.
• Dalits, also known as " Untouchables," are members of the lowest social group in the Hindu caste system.
• The word "Dalit" means "oppressed" or "broken" and is the name members of this group gave themselves in the 1930s.
• A Dalit is actually born below the caste system, which includes four primary castes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriya (warriors and princes), Vaishya (farmers and artisans), and Shudra (tenant farmers and servants).
• An Untouchable couldn't enter a Hindu temple or be taught to read. They were banned from drawing water from village wells because their touch would taint the water for everyone else.
• Indians believed that people were born as Untouchables as punishment for misbehaviour in previous lives.
• An Untouchable could not ascend to a higher caste within that lifetime; Untouchables had to marry fellow Untouchables and could not eat in the same room or drink from the same well as a caste member.
• In Hindu reincarnation theories, however, those who scrupulously followed these restrictions could be rewarded for their behaviour by a promotion to a higher caste in their next life.

Understanding the Structure of Hindu Social Order:

• The structure of the Hindu social order is hierarchical in nature and 82 per cent of the Indian population is Hindu according to the 2011 Census. The origin of the Hindu Social Order is traced from the sacred text of Hindus – the Rigveda. The tenth chapter of this text reveals that there are four groups better known as These groups are arranged hierarchically one above the other.
• The first group, Brahmin, occupies the top position in this hierarchy. The second group is Rajanya (later known as Kshatriyas), third is Vaishya. The Shudras come last in the hierarchy according to the Rigveda.
• Yet, sociologists have included a fifth group – the Ashprishyas (literary translated as untouchables) better known as Dalits in the Hindu Social Order. Therefore, it can be concluded that the full scheme of the Hindu social order has five major social groups arranged hierarchically with Brahmins at the top and Dalits at the lowest level.
• It is this unequal distribution of rights and privileges in a social structure, which also bears religious legitimacy which produces extreme forms of inequality in Indian society.

Caste and the Economic Sphere:

• The ideology of caste prescribed specific occupations for specific caste groups, which had a specific place in the social hierarchy. The vocations of the upper castes were considered to be the most prestigious while the occupations of the lower castes, especially the untouchables were considered to be polluting and defiling.
• Influence of British Rule : The advent of the British saw new economic opportunities flowing out, and reaching the masses. The opening up of plantations and the development of towns and cities laid the basis for economic development, which intruded into the functioning of the caste system. The growth of the money economy enabled economic relations to be governed by market conditions as opposed to inherited status. Certain caste groups flourishing in the wake of new business opportunities invested their profits in lands. Because of land reforms like Permanent Settlement, introduced during the British rule, the land came into the market and thus ceased to be tied to caste.
• The British successfully formalised religion as a category through the medium of the census. Hindus never had a centralised religion until the British told them they did. It was constructed as a creation of Brahmins to enforce caste hierarchy, just as prophets and priests enforced divine law in Christianity.
• This new vocabulary of religion enabled Britain to justify its rule of India, and ‘save’ Hindus from Muslim rulers, and ‘lower’ caste Hindus from the ‘upper’ caste elite. Later, it enabled elite Muslims to divide India and ‘protect’ Muslims from the now powerful Hindu elite.
• Caste and the Indian Army: They identified and designated certain caste and religious groups as 'martial races', and gave preference to them over others in recruitment to the Army. Among these 'martial races' were Rajputs, Jats, Marathas, Sikhs, Dogras, Gurkhas and Mahars.
• Caste considerations were not only evident in the formation of certain regiments in the Army but were seen in a few other aspects of military organisation. For instance, barbers, washermen and sweepers in the military were usually recruited from their respective castes of Nais, Dhobis and Bhangis; and some labour corps was raised in the military, which mostly, if not wholly, consisted of Harijans.
• The breakdown of the traditional economic system and the emergence of lower caste groups in economic rivalry rather than cooperation undermined the Brahman dominance found in Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. This has been attributed to the changing village structure from a closed stationary system to that of a relatively open system. The closed system was characteristic of a feudal economy resulting in cooperation between ranked castes in ways ordained by religious ideas. An open system is one, which is governed by secular law under the influence of a market economy.

Post-Independence Scenario:

• Following independence in 1947, India's new constitution identified groups of former Untouchables as "scheduled castes ," singling them out for consideration and government assistance.
• The constituent assembly mandated with the function to draft the constitution of independent India adopted the Constitution based on the principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The real idea behind the said ideals was to create an egalitarian society where discrimination in any form be denounced and the state would aspire to create an empowered society free from any such discrimination. Indian constitution provided constitutional guarantees and protections for a wide range of civil liberties for individuals. On the bedrock of fundamental rights constitution provided for the abolition of untouchability, and discrimination based on caste, race, gender and place of birth.
• Ambedkar argued for extensive economic and social rights for disadvantaged sections , and also won the Assembly’s support for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, a system akin to affirmative action. These were the first of the measures of post-independence, which were conceived for the empowerment of the Scheduled Castes.

Dalit Movements after Independence:

Dalit Panther Movement:

• Dalit Panther as a social organization was founded by Namdeo Dhasal in April 1972 in Mumbai, which saw its heyday in the 1970s and through the 80s. Dalit Panther was inspired by Black Panther Party, a revolutionary movement amongst African-Americans, which emerged in the United States and functioned from 1966-to 1982. The members were young men belonging to Neo-Buddhists and Scheduled Castes.
• The Dalit Panther movement was a radical departure from earlier Dalit movements. Its initial thrust on militancy through the use of rustic arms and threats gave the movement a revolutionary colour.
• The prominent feature which makes the Dalit Panther’s party movement an integral mention in the historicity of the Dalit movements post-independence is its endeavour to conjoin the Dalit identity with the revolutionary proletarian class identity which was a clear-cut departure from the accepted legacy of Ambedkar .
• Importance of Panther Party Movement : They reflected the positive aspects of the BPP’s contributions in terms of self-defence, mass organizing techniques, propaganda techniques and radical orientation, the onset of the Panther’s movement can be appreciated in the sense of creating a radical force within the Dalit community and opening the prospects of its relationships with the leftist forces in the country, which was harnessed to some extent by Kanshi Ram and his successor Mayawati although in a different form and spirit.

Bahujan Samaj Party:

• In 1984 Kanshiram, founded a political party – Bahujan Samaj Party to fulfil Dalit consciousness dreams . The BSP states that it represents the people at the lowest levels of the Hindu social system—those officially designated as members of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes—as well as other religious and social minorities.

Changes in Caste System:

Changes in the caste system entail three types of changes such as structural change, functional change and attitudinal change.

1. Structural Changes:

• Decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins: There has been a sharp decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins in society. In the past, the Brahmin occupied the topmost position in the caste hierarchy. But today consequent of the process of modernization the dominance of the Brahmins have been relegated to the background.
• Changes in the Caste hierarchy: The caste system is no longer a demarcated system of hierarchically-ordered caste groups. As a result of certain factors such as occupational diversification, migration to urban areas, and mechanisation of agriculture, boundaries between caste groups are tending to blur or break down.
• Protection of the Harijans: The governmental policy of protective discrimination has gone a long way in improving the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans. Consequently, their social status has improved to a considerable extent.

2. Functional Changes:

• Change in the fixation of status: In a caste society, birth was taken as the exclusive basis of social status. But in the changing social scenario, birth no longer constitutes the basis of social prestige. Criteria such as wealth, ability, education, efficiency etc. have become the determinants of social status.
• Change with regard to occupation : So far as the caste system is concerned, the individual had no choice but to follow the occupation ascribed to him by his caste. But today occupation is not the hereditary monopoly of any caste anymore. One is free to take up any occupation he likes according to his ability and interest.
• Changes in marriage restrictions : Under the caste system endogamy was the basis of mate selection. The members of a caste or sub-caste were forbidden by inexorable social law to marry outside the group. But at present the Special Marriage Act, 1954 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have removed endogamic restrictions and declared inter-caste marriages as legally valid.
• Change in commensality : In the traditional system, the unit of commensality was defined fairly rigidly in terms of caste affiliation. In recent times, there has been a gradual expansion of this unit. Today, Brahmins are dining with the person of other castes. Furthermore, they do not hesitate to accept food and water from the members of the lower castes to fulfilment of their political ends.
• Change in the concept of purity and pollution: Under the caste system occupations were ranked in accordance with their ritual purity. For example, a person coming into contact with a barber was supposed to become impure. A menstruating lady was considered impure and as such the food cooked by her was considered impure. In the twenty-first century, the importance of these ideas of purity and pollution in Hindu social life has considerably decreased.
• Change in the lifestyle: In the past, every caste had its own lifestyle. It was the differences in the styles of life that made the people of different castes appear distinct from one another. But today differences between the lifestyles of castes are gradually being eliminated and there is a marked tendency towards the evolution of a common style. The standardization of lifestyles is due to the twin processes of sanskritization and westernization.
• Change in inter-caste relations: Of late, the pattern of inter-caste relations has undergone profound changes. The mutual rights and obligations characterising inter-caste relations have crumbled down. Members of the low castes no longer obey the orders of the members of the high castes. They do not come forward to perform forced labour for the members of the upper caste.
• Change in the power of caste Panchayats: So far as the caste system was concerned, each caste had a caste Panchayat. The caste Panchayat played the role of a judicial body. But today Jati Panchayats are on the decline. Law courts and village factions have taken over most of their roles.
• Restrictions on education removed: Today education is no more confined to the higher castes. Anybody belonging to any caste can prosecute study in educational institutions.
• Changes in the system of power: The notions of democracy and adult franchise have affected the caste system in several ways. The new political system attacks the very roots of hierarchization. In the past politics was regarded as the sole preserve of the higher castes. But today people belonging to all castes are becoming conscious that they can play an important role in the political processes and can be benefitted from them.
• Weakening of the Jajmani system: The Jajmani system in the villages has weakened, affecting inter-caste relations. Several reasons like laxity in the performance of rites and rituals on the part of the members of various castes, the decline of Brahminical supremacy, development in the field of transport and communication, intergenerational educational mobility etc. may be attributed to the decline of the Jajmani system in rural India.

3. Attitudinal Changes:

• Loss of faith in the ascriptive status: Under the sway of rapid social transformation taking place in Indian society following the processes of industrialization, urbanization, westernization, secularization and modernization, the attitude of the people towards the caste system has undergone considerable changes. They are not psychologically prepared to accept the fixed status of an individual solely based on birth. They attach importance to ability, efficiency, talent and aptitude. Hence it is quite natural that they repose their faith in achieved status. As such, the very foundation of the caste system has been shattered.
• Change in the philosophical basis : People do not believe that caste is divinely ordained. They have begun to doubt the very philosophical basis of the caste system. Caste has taken the shape of an incarnation in modern India.

Notable work by Politico-Socio-Reformist and the Dalit Rights Movement:

In the 19th century, the ruling British Raj tried to end some aspects of the caste system in India, particularly those surrounding the Untouchables. British liberals saw the treatment of Untouchables as singularly cruel, perhaps in part because they didn't usually believe in reincarnation.

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy: He believed in the social equality of all human beings and thus was a strong opposer of the caste system. In 1814, he founded in Calcutta to campaign against idolatry, caste rigidities, meaningless rituals and Atmiya Sabha's other social ills.
• Dadoba Pandurang: He founded Paramhansa Sabha in 1840, and was the first reform organisation of the 19th century in Maharashtra. Its main objective was to demolish all caste distinctions.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati: He advocated social equality improvement in the status of women and denounced untouchability, caste rigidities and encouraged rationality.
• Jyotirao Phule: Jyotirao Phule coined the term "Dalit" as a more descriptive and sympathetic term for the Untouchables . He established Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873 to liberate the Shundra and Untouchable castes from exploitation and oppression. He also challenges the superiority and domination complex of Brahmans.
• EV Ramaswami Naicker: He started the Self-respect Movement , which was popularly known as Periyar. He vehemently supported the Harijan's Self-respect Movement and became a hero of Satyagraha at Vaikom, Kerala, started his paper, Kudi Arasu in 1925 and turned into a radical social reformer.
• Mahatma Gandhi: In 1933, Gandhi thought of untouchability as the bigger evil, and felt it necessary to first abolish the caste system and “cross the other bridge later. In 1920 at Nagpur's speech on untouchability, Mahatma Gandhi called it a great evil in Hindu society but also observed that it was not unique to Hinduism, having deeper roots.
• He called the doctrine of untouchability intolerable and asserted that the practice could be eradicated. Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 began a new campaign to improve the lives of untouchables, whom he started to call "Harijans" that is the "Children of God".
• Subsequently, he founded the All India Harijan Sevak Sangh in the wake of his Epic fast at Yerwada Jail, Pune, on the backdrop of the historic Poona Pact.
• Gandhi Ji also opposed the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931 which segregated the depressed classes or untouchables of the Hindu community into a separate electoral group.
• TK Madhavan, K Kellapan and Keshava Menon: Vaikom Satyagraha (Kerala, 1924-25) was led by TK Madhavan, K Kellapan and Keshava Menon. It was the first organised temple entry movement of the depressed classes. They asserted along Gandhian lines the right of Ezhavas and other untouchables to use the road near Travancore temple.
• BR Ambedkar: Ambedkar was against caste-based discrimination in society and advocated for the Dalits to organise and demand their rights.
• He established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to promote education and socio-economic improvement of the untouchables.
• He led the Mahad Satyagrah or Chavdar Tale Satyagraha to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town.

Evil Faces of this System:

• Untouchability: Many villages are separated by caste and they may not cross the line dividing them from the higher castes. They also may not use the same wells or drink in the same tea stalls as higher castes.
• Discrimination: They often do not have the facility to electricity, sanitation facilities or water pumps in lower caste neighbourhoods. Access to better education, housing and medical facilities than that of the higher castes is denied.
• Division of labour: They are restricted to certain occupations like sanitation work, plantation work, leatherwork, cleaning streets, etc.
• Slavery: They are subjected to exploitation in the name of debt, tradition, etc., to work as labourers or perform menial tasks for generations together.

Important Factors Responsible for Change in Caste System in India are as follows:

• Modern education: Modern liberal education introduced into the country by the British has played a crucial role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life. As modern education is usually imparted in co-educational institutions, it encourages inter-caste marriage and inter-caste mixing. Moreover, it acts as a powerful force toward the removal of untouchability.
• Industrialization: Industrial growth has provided new sources of livelihood to people and made occupational mobility possible. Factories, mills and offices are agog with activities. In the midst of all this, the people belonging to various castes consider it mediaevalist to go into the question of one’s caste.
• Urbanization: Industrialization has given rise to the process of urbanization. New townships have emerged. The people from rural areas migrate to these towns in order to avail better employment opportunities. With the coming up of big hotels, restaurants, theatres, clubs and educational institutions it is not at all possible to observe communal inhibitions and taboos against food-sharing.
• Modern means of transport and communication: Modern means of transport and communication are instrumental in increasing the spatial mobility of the people and thereby putting an end to the caste system. Means of transport like train, bus, tram, airplane etc. cannot provide for distinctions between castes, and a levelling effect has been brought into the society.
• Increase in the importance of wealth : Under the caste system, ascription was taken as the basis of social prestige. But today, wealth has replaced ascription as the basis of social prestige. Occupations are now no longer caste-based. People while choosing their occupations attach greater importance to income rather than anything else. It is because of this reason a high-born may be ill-placed in society while a man of low caste with ample wealth at his disposal has a room at the top.
• The new legal system: The new legal system, has given a severe blow to the caste system in India. Equality before law irrespective of castes has been firmly instituted. Consequently, the age-old discrimination against the lower castes has been removed. Further, with the establishment of law courts, the traditional castes Panchayats have lost their power and effectiveness to punish the deviants. Not only that a number of Acts like the Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have abnegated the evil effects of the caste system.
• Sanskritization: It is “the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently ‘twice-born’ caste”. The members of the lower castes leave their own traditional ideals and behaviour patterns and accept the ideals and standards of higher castes. The caste system being a closed one, Sanskritization does not entail structural change. It entails positional change. Hence through Sanskritization, the lower caste people move up slightly in the scale of “Jatis’ within particular varna.
• Westernization: It signifies the changes in Indian society during British rule. By promoting education, egalitarianism, rationalism, humanism and above all a critical outlook toward various social issues and problems, westernization has gone a long way in undermining the influence of the caste system. It has given a severe blow to practices like child marriage, purity and pollution, commensality, untouchability etc. The effects of westernization are prominently visible in the form of intercaste marriages, inter-community marriages, inter-religious marriages, occupational changes etc.
• Secularization: The role of secularization in weakening the caste system is great. By legitimizing secular ideologies and formal legal doctrines and promoting rationality, scientific attitude and differentiation, secularization has affected certain characteristics of the caste system especially the concept of purity and pollution, commensality, fixity of occupation etc.
• Socialistic ideas: The caste system is based on the ideas of high birth and low birth. On the other hand, socialists say, “the differences between human beings have been created by society; hence society only can remove them.” As a result of such socialist thought, the caste system is breaking.
• Rise of new social classes: Industrialization has given rise to the emergence of new social classes. These social classes are replacing the traditional castes. Trade Unions, Merchants’ Associations and Political Parties are replacing the old caste loyalties. An increase in class consciousness leads to a decrease in caste consciousness.
• Influence of Indian Constitution: Indian Constitution bestows some fundamental rights on the citizens irrespective of caste, creed, colour or sex. It offers equal opportunities to all. The Constitution, which declares all citizens as equal, directly attacks the Hindu social order based on inherited inequality. No wonder the caste system is withering away.

Conclusion:

It is clear from the above discussion that inequality is one of the products of the caste structure in India. The caste structure is responsible for the distribution of rights and privileges among the 80 per cent of the Indian population known as Hindus. It is because of this arrangement few castes have acquired unprecedented social, cultural and symbolic capital in Indian society. In turn, certain castes like Dalits have been completely debarred from any type of capital. This leads to marginalization and exclusion of castes located lower in the caste hierarchy, especially the Dalits.

But with the passage of time the Caste, in its older forms, has become irrelevant. But now instead of getting replaced with a class-based society, the caste system has taken shelter in other walks of our social life. Caste hierarchy might not play a role in these walks, but caste consciousness does . The caste system in India is undergoing changes due to progress in education, technology, modernization and changes in general social outlook. Despite the general improvement in conditions of the lower castes, India has still a long way to go, to root out the evils of the caste system from the society. We must come to terms with the fact that caste by its nature is anti-social (as Ambedkar has rightly suggested), and no social cohesion can be achieved without destroying its edifices.

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