research writing styles

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Format a Research Paper: APA, MLA, and Chicago Styles

The rules for academic writing go beyond citing sources and using proper research methods. You also have to adhere to the right research paper format and the technical rules for structuring and writing your paper. The problem is the three main research paper formats—APA, MLA, and Chicago—all have different rules.

Below, we explain all the essential formatting guidelines you need to know when writing your research paper. We’ll cover the formatting guidelines for all three styles and even share some examples of academic citations so you can write yours to match.

Table of Contents

What is a research paper format?

Style guide comparison: which formatting guidelines to use, common rules for all research paper formats, apa style guide, mla style guide, chicago style guide.

A research paper format is a set of rules and style suggestions for writing in academic research. These formats each have their own preferences about how a paper should be, such as how to write in-text citations or structure the bibliography , and style choices like when to spell out numbers.

Although there are a few other styles, modern academic writing typically uses three main ones: APA, MLA, and Chicago.

The first step in how to write a research paper is choosing your format. It’s smart to know which style you’ll use for academic citations and writing choices before you begin; otherwise, you’ll have a lot more editing to do at the end.

Which format to use is generally related to the subject of the research paper. Professors may state which style they prefer for papers in their class, but this is not always the case. If you’re unsure of which style to use, here are the traditional guidelines for which subjects use which formats:

• APA: social sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and some business topics)
• MLA: humanities (languages, philosophy, literature, religion, ethics, and the arts)
• Chicago: history and unique topics

While these styles have different preferences for paper structure and other formatting guidelines, the most distinct differences are in how they write academic citations.

You can see the differences yourself in our article on citation examples , which explains the differences in detail and how to create them yourself.

If you’re having trouble writing academic citations, use our free citation generator , which automatically creates citations for APA, MLA, and Chicago.

Before we get into the differences between these three research paper formats, let’s talk about what’s the same. Some rules are universal for academic writing, so you follow them no matter your format. Here are the key formatting guidelines every style adheres to:

• Double-spaced
• Paragraph indentations are 0.5 inches
• Printed on 8½-by-11-inch paper
• One-inch margin on all sides (except running heads)
• Use the Oxford comma , a.k.a. the serial comma.
• Spell out numbers that begin a sentence, heading, or title.
• Entries in the bibliography use a hanging indent (every line except the first is indented).

The APA format comes from the American Psychological Association, which explains its connection to the social sciences. Compared to other styles, the APA style guide emphasizes formality and clarity, in keeping with the association’s scientific orientation. Likewise, APA citations tend to value dates and years of publication.

APA paper structure

• Title page creation. Title pages, also called cover pages , are necessary in APA and must include the paper’s title and the names of each author. Student papers also require the school, course number, instructor name, and assignment due date on the title page, while professional papers need the authors’ affiliations and a note on the authors.
• Running head . Every page in APA requires a running head, which is a line of text at the top of the page. The running head for student papers has only the page number, flush right, but professional papers also include the paper’s title abbreviated to under 50 characters, flush left.
• Abstract . Although not always necessary, some APA papers include an abstract , a page that goes immediately after the title page and contains a brief summary of the paper in under 250 words. Place the title “Abstract” at the top of the page, centered and in bold, and use no indentation for the text. Abstracts can be written in paragraph style or categorized by Objective, Method , Results , and Conclusion .
• First page. In addition to the title page, the first page of text also has the paper’s title with title case capitalization, centered and in bold.

APA rules for style

• Formality . Do not use contractions or colloquialisms . Avoid using the editorial we in the sense of everyone . Instead, say something more specific, such as “people” or “the average person” or similar.
• Capitalization . Use title case capitalization for all headings, tables, and figure titles. However, for the titles of works in the reference list, use sentence capitalization (only capitalize the first letter of the first word).
• Fractions . Differing from other number rules, fractions are spelled out if they are simple and/or common ( one-third , a half ).
• numbers with units of measurement ( 9 in. )
• numbers in a series after a noun ( Chapter 4 )
• times and dates ( 4:17 p.m., 7/20/69 )
• ages ( 5 years old )
• scores and points ( 7–1 )
• money ( $3.50 )
• numbers themselves ( the number 8 )
• statistical or mathematical functions: ratios, decimals, percentages, etc. ( 10:1, 3 times as many )

APA citation formats

For in-text citations where the source information is not presented in the text, use parenthetical citations with the author’s last name and the year of publication , separated with a comma. If you are using a direct quote, you must also include the page number (with the abbreviation p. ), a timestamp, or another location indicator, also separated with a comma.

(Sobol, 2021)

(Sobol, 2021, p. 455)

APA bibliography formatting

Each source used in your paper requires a full citation in the bibliography, which in APA is referred to as the reference page . The reference page uses the title “References” centered and in bold at the top, and itself comes at the end of the research paper text, but before tables and appendices.

Generally, each source entry contains the full name of the author or authors (each should be listed with the last name first), title, date of publication, and sometimes the type of source.

Sobol, M., Przepiórka, A., Meisner, M., & Kuppens, P. (2021). Destiny or control of one’s future? Fatalistic time perspective and self-esteem in extroverts and introverts. The Journal of General Psychology, 149 (4), 443–455.

Each type of source has its own formula, so refer to our APA guide for how to write full citations for books, online articles, videos, etc.

The MLA format comes from the Modern Language Association and applies to research papers in the arts and humanities. The MLA style guide is one of the most used formats, in particular for high school and undergraduate students. Because it deals with human interest and artwork, MLA emphasizes creators and authorship in citations.

MLA paper structure

• Block quotes . Set direct quotations in block quotes if they are four lines or longer (with poetry, three lines or longer). Block quotes are indented 0.5 inches on each side and set apart from other text. Do not use quotation marks; place the parenthetical citation after the ending punctuation.
• Author’s name
• Instructor’s name
• Course number
• Running head . Each page must include a running head with the author’s last name and page number, flush right.

MLA rules for style

• Abbreviations . Do not use periods with abbreviations ( UK , not U.K. ).
• Numbers . If a number or fraction can be written in one or two words, spell it out ( ninety-nine , twenty million , one-fifth ). For other numbers, use numerals. Additionally, use numerals for items in a series ( Chapter 4 ) and when numbers are mixed or discussed frequently ( between 50 and 150 people ).
• Dates . Do not abbreviate dates. Use the full month-day-year or day-month-year format.
• Names . Use a person’s full name the first time they are mentioned, and only surname (last name) for subsequent mentions. Surnames include particles like de , O’ , or von .

MLA citation formats

In-text citations in MLA use parenthetical citations with the author’s last name and preferably also the page number , a timestamp, or another location indicator. Do not use commas or abbreviations for the page number.

MLA bibliography formatting

In MLA, the bibliography is called the works cited page . It comes at the end of the paper with the title “Works Cited” centered at the top. Entries are organized alphabetically by the first word, usually the author’s last name.

Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Translated by Justin O’Brien, New York, Random House, 1955.

You can read about the specific details for formatting a works cited page in our guide here . To learn how to write full citations in MLA, see our MLA guide .

The Chicago format is a little different from APA and MLA because it encourages personalization. Rather than offering a specific way of formatting your paper, Chicago offers rules for a few different methods, which allows the author to choose the most apt one for them.

This flexibility is most evident in the choice between two citation systems: Author-Date and Notes-Bibliography . The Author-Date system follows similar guidelines to the parenthetical citations in APA and MLA, while the Notes-Bibliography system utilizes footnotes or endnotes to reference sources, rather than interrupting the text.

Chicago paper structure

• Page numbers . Each page should include a page number, either in the top right or bottom center.
• Block quotes. Use block quotes for direct quotations five lines or longer. Indent each line 0.5 inches, and do not use quotation marks.
• Capitalization . Headings are capitalized using the title case.

Chicago rules for style

• Abbreviations . Use periods for abbreviations that end in lowercase letters and initials in names (unless the entire name is initialized, like MLK ). Do not use periods for abbreviations with all capital letters.
• numbers with symbols or measurements ( 3 km )
• percentages ( 7% )
• decimals ( 0.333 )

Chicago citation formats

Author-date:

Chicago’s author-date system for academic citations follows similar rules as the APA and MLA style guides. It uses a parenthetical citation with the author’s last name and the year of publication , as well as an optional location indicator like a page number with no abbreviation. The author’s name and year of publication are not separated by a comma, but the page number or other location is.

(Maalouf 1984)

(Maalouf 1984, 215)

Notes-bibliography:

As an alternative to the author-date system, you can instead use the notes-bibliography system, which utilizes footnotes (bottom of the page) and endnotes (end of the chapter or section). This is advisable if you use a lot of citations so that they do not disrupt the reading flow with constant interruptions.

Both footnotes and endnotes are marked in-text with a superscript number corresponding to the same number in the note section. If you include a bibliography at the end of the paper, your notes use a short form , which only covers the basic information like the author’s name, an abbreviated title, and page number.

1. Maalouf, Crusades , 210.

If you are not including a bibliography, you must include the full citation in the first note that references the source.

1. Amin Maalouf, The Crusades through Arab Eyes. London: Al Saqi Books, 1984.

However, all references to the same source after the first can use the short form.

Chicago bibliography formatting

The bibliography in Chicago is understandably flexible. In fact, even the title at the top changes: “Bibliography” for the notes-bibliography system and “References” or “Works Cited” for the author-date system.

In terms of formatting, names are inverted so that the surname comes first, and titles are capitalized in the title case.

Maalouf, Amin. 1984. The Crusades through Arab Eyes . London: Al Saqi Books.

For details on how to cite specific types of sources, see our Chicago guide .

Key takeaways

• Most research papers use either the APA, MLA, or Chicago format, depending on the subject or the professor’s preference. In general, APA is for social sciences, MLA is for arts and humanities, and Chicago is for history and unique subjects.
• Each style has its own rules for how to format papers, such as when to spell out numbers, and how to write academic citations.
• You can see the basics for each format above, or read more in-depth instructions in our dedicated guides: APA , MLA , or Chicago .
• To help with academic citations, use our free citation generator , which creates citations automatically for all three styles.

Research paper format FAQs

What are the differences between apa, mla, and chicago reference styles.

The three main research paper formats—APA, MLA, and Chicago—all have their own rules for paper structure and academic citations. Aside from the preferences of the course professor, the formats are generally categorized by subject: APA for social sciences, MLA for arts and humanities, and Chicago for history and unique subjects.

Can I use more than one citation style in my research paper?

No, you must use only one research paper format consistently. Each style has overlapping rules that contradict each other, so keep to only one at a time.

What are some common mistakes to avoid in research paper formatting?

Be sure to check the formatting guidelines on how to identify each type of source. Citing a book uses a different format than citing an online article, even if you’re using the same style guide.

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Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research Paper Formats

The format of a research paper is essential for maintaining consistency, clarity, and readability, enabling readers to understand the research findings effectively. Different disciplines follow specific formats and citation styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and IEEE. Knowing the requirements for each format ensures that researchers present their work in a professional and organized manner.

Why Research Paper Format is Important

• Consistency : A standardized format ensures that each paper has a similar structure, making it easier for readers to locate information.
• Credibility : Following a professional format enhances the credibility of the work, making it look polished and reliable.
• Guidelines for Citations : Proper format helps in organizing references and citing sources accurately, which is crucial for avoiding plagiarism.
• Reader Comprehension : An organized format improves readability, enabling readers to follow the research arguments and findings effortlessly.

Types of Research Paper Formats

1. apa format (american psychological association).

• Discipline : Commonly used in social sciences, psychology, education, and business.
• Title Page : Includes title, author’s name, affiliation, course, instructor, and date.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the research, usually around 150-250 words.
• Main Body : Contains sections such as introduction, method, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• References : Lists all sources cited in the paper in APA style.
• Double-spaced, Times New Roman 12-point font.
• One-inch margins on all sides.
• In-text citations include author’s last name and year (e.g., Smith, 2020).

2. MLA Format (Modern Language Association)

• Discipline : Commonly used in humanities, literature, and cultural studies.
• Header : Author’s name, instructor’s name, course, and date.
• Title : Centered on the first page, no separate title page required.
• Main Body : Sections for introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.
• Works Cited : Lists all references in MLA style.
• One-inch margins, with in-text citations including the author’s last name and page number (e.g., Smith 45).

3. Chicago Format (Chicago Manual of Style)

• Discipline : Used in history, business, fine arts, and sometimes social sciences.
• Title Page : Includes the title, author’s name, and institutional affiliation.
• Abstract (Optional) : Brief summary, sometimes included depending on requirements.
• Main Body : Includes introduction, main sections, and conclusion.
• Footnotes/Endnotes : Citations are either in the form of footnotes or endnotes.
• Bibliography : Lists all sources in Chicago style.
• One-inch margins, with footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations.

4. IEEE Format (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

• Discipline : Primarily used in engineering, computer science, and technical fields.
• Title Page : Includes title, author’s name, affiliations, and acknowledgment.
• Abstract : Brief summary, typically 100-150 words.
• Main Body : Sections such as introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• References : Numbered list of references, with citations in brackets (e.g., [1], [2]).
• Double-column layout, single-spaced, Times New Roman 10-point font.
• One-inch margins, with citations indicated by numbers in brackets within the text.

5. Harvard Format

• Discipline : Widely used in academic publications, particularly in the UK.
• Title Page : Title, author’s name, date, and affiliation.
• Abstract : Summary of the research.
• Main Body : Sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• References : Alphabetized list in Harvard style.
• One-inch margins, with in-text citations including the author’s last name, year, and page number if applicable (e.g., Smith, 2020).

General Template for Research Paper

Here is a general template applicable across various formats, especially useful if a specific format isn’t required. Researchers can adjust sections based on the format style guide they need to follow.

• Paper Title
• Author’s Name(s)
• Institutional Affiliation
• Brief summary of the research, key findings, and significance.
• Typically 150-250 words.
• Background of the study and research questions.
• Purpose and significance of the research.
• Summary of existing research relevant to the topic.
• Identification of gaps in the literature.
• Detailed explanation of research methods and procedures.
• Description of sample, data collection, and analysis techniques.
• Presentation of findings, often with tables, charts, or graphs.
• Clear and objective reporting of data.
• Interpretation of findings.
• Comparison with other studies, implications, and potential limitations.
• Summary of the research and its contributions.
• Suggestions for future research.
• Complete list of all sources cited in the paper.
• Follow the specific citation style format (APA, MLA, etc.).
• Appendices (if required)
• Additional information, data, or materials relevant to the study but not included in the main text.

Tips for Formatting a Research Paper

• Check Formatting Guidelines : Each journal or institution may have specific requirements, so always refer to the official guidelines.
• Use Consistent Citations : Ensure all in-text citations and references follow the same format, matching the required style.
• Use Headings and Subheadings : Organize sections with clear headings to improve readability and structure.
• Proofread for Formatting Errors : Small formatting errors can detract from the professionalism of the paper, so carefully review layout and style.
• Use Templates in Word Processors : Many word processors offer built-in templates for APA, MLA, and other styles, helping streamline the formatting process.

Example of Research Paper Formatting in APA

Title Page Impact of Social Media on Adolescent Mental Health Author Name University Name Course Name, Instructor Name Date

Abstract This study explores the impact of social media use on adolescent mental health, focusing on levels of anxiety and depression. Data were collected from high school students through a survey. Results suggest a positive correlation between social media use and anxiety, highlighting the need for guidelines on healthy social media habits. (Word count: 150)

Main Body Introduction Discusses the background of social media’s popularity and its psychological effects on teenagers.

Methodology Details the survey process, sample selection, and data analysis techniques.

Results Presents survey findings on the levels of anxiety and depression associated with social media usage.

Discussion Interprets findings in light of previous research and discusses potential implications.

Conclusion Summarizes the key findings, suggesting areas for future study.

References Lists all references in APA format, alphabetically by author.

A research paper’s format is essential for presenting information clearly and professionally. By following specific guidelines, such as APA, MLA, or IEEE, researchers ensure that their work is accessible and credible. Using templates and formatting tips, researchers can structure their papers effectively, improving readability and impact.

• American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.
• Gibaldi, J. (2016). MLA Handbook (8th ed.). Modern Language Association of America.
• University of Chicago Press. (2017). The Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.). University of Chicago Press.
• IEEE Standards Association. (2020). IEEE Citation Reference . IEEE.
• Pears, R., & Shields, G. (2019). Cite Them Right: The Essential Referencing Guide . Red Globe Press.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Academic Writing Style
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Resources
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, predominant use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective narrative vioce, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary depending on specific disciplinary norms and traditions, the methodological approach used in gathering data, and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"]. Never use indeterminate words or phrasing ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., Commander-in-Chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement in writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline in regards to the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The overarching objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen research problem, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the topic. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and innovative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas in a manner that can be easily understood. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of scholars and practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

• Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
• Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this methodological area of the social and behavioral sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
• Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English. Note that this is also important because scholarship can be read by researchers outside of the United States. Slang and idioms are culturally constructed and, therefore, they can be confusing to an audience that is outside of that culture.
• Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
• Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
• Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is appropriate to state, "This study examines four main problems with hedge funds:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets but avoid checkmarks and other types of symbols.
• Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information is needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on a review of prior research, the methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
• Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. It humanizes the problem. However, personal experience should only be used as an example because academic writing relies on evidence-based research and analysis. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

• A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
• A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
• The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

• It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
• Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
• You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
• You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
• The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
• The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
• You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
• You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
• Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
• Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
• The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

• You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
• It is not important who or what did the action;
• You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

• Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

Different Research Paper Styles and Writing Formats

• What Is a Writing Style
• Why Do You Need to Choose

Harvard Style

• Chicago Manual of Style
• Resume Writing Format
• Advices for Writing and Formatting

What Is a Writing Style, and Which Formats Could You Use?

• Citing. The purpose of the citing/quoting is that it should repeat the original text word-for-word and include a reference to the original writer of the source document. You should decide which approach to use when incorporating another author’s ideas into your text. You should use direct quotations during research when the exact wording of a passage is important to ensure you have reproduced the original accurately. You might also use citations if the original statement is well-formulated and you feel it will enrich your writing.
• Paraphrasing in research is basically retelling a passage of the original text using your own words and sentence structures. The original author must also be referenced. Paraphrasing is widely used in research papers and argumentative essays, showing your supervisors you understand a source text and may reformulate it and find and emphasize its main points. It also helps change the stylistic characteristics of your source, adapting it to the readers (e.g., if you use it for a presentation of some scientific topic before your class) and omitting unnecessary details.
• Summarizing in research means reproducing only the source’s most important ideas and main points in your own words. It usually summarizes a larger statement in the form of a shorter explanation. However, the original source must be referenced, too. The purpose of a summary is similar to that of a paraphrasing. Still, it helps to shorten a long text, explaining a lengthy chapter, article, or book in a brief essay or even a single paragraph.

Why Do You Need to Choose the Right Research Paper Style?

• APA format;
• MLA format;
• CGOS format;
• CBE format;
• Harvard format;
• Chicago Manual of Style/Turabian format;
• ASA format;
• AMA format.

APA Style (American Psychological Association)

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association – Get a quick orientation to APA, Create APA parenthetical citations, Create an APA reference list, Format a paper using APA guidelines, Format APA headings for a research paper, Review APA usage and research paper writing styles guidelines, and Locate other APA resources on the Web.
• The Basics of APA Style – From APA Online, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. A useful tutorial following the 6th Edition of APA’s Publication Manual, 2009. There are also some useful FAQs.
• Understanding Electronic Sources from American Psychological Association (APA) – Excerpted from the new 6th edition of the APA Publication Manual.

MLA Style (Modern Language Association)

• The Modern Language Association has the authority on research and writing while documenting sources.
• Citing Film and Video in a slightly adapted version of MLA style of research with examples.
• Citing TV and Radio with research examples by Gary Handman, Media Resources Center, Library, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
• Guidelines on How to Write a Bibliography in MLA Style
• Works Cited, References, Bibliography – What’s the Difference?
• How to Write Footnotes and Endnotes in MLA Style
• MLA Online – University of Houston Libraries
• MLA Parenthetical Documentation – LEO: Literacy Education Online, St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN. How to correctly document different types of sources using MLA Parenthetical Documentation: Author(s) name, Multivolume works, Classic literary works, Special cases.
• Using Modern Language Association (MLA) Format The Purdue University Online Writing Lab, West Lafayette, IN. Using APA format, Formatting in Sociology, Handling quotations in text, Works Cited list, Footnotes, and Endnotes.

CGOS Citation Style – Columbia Guide to Online Writing Style in Research

Cbe style of research – council of biology editors, cbe documentation, online media resources research and citation (websites, online media files, etc.).

• The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , aka “Harvard Citator,” published by Harvard Law Review Association in conjunction with Columbia Law Review, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, and Yale Law Journal 2019 edition
• Interactive Citation Workbook for The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation and ALWD Citation Manual by Tracy L. McGaugh (Book)
• Reference Styles & Essay Writing Guide King’s College, London. Essay Writing, Locating Information – Effective Reading, Selecting Information – Note Taking, Bibliographies, Examples of Bibliographic Entries, Points to Remember, and Textual References or Citations (including Parenthetical Reference examples).

Chicago Manual of Style/Turabian Style

• The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ed. This edition has been prepared with an eye toward how we find, create, and cite research information that readers are as likely to access from their pockets as from a bookshelf. It offers updated guidelines on electronic workflows and publication of different format of research paper, tools for PDF annotation and citation management, web accessibility standards, and effective use of metadata, abstracts, and keywords.
• Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide From the Chicago Manual of Style Online. Provides examples of format for writing footnotes, in-text citations, reference list entries, and bibliographical citations for both print and electronic sources using Chicago Style.
• Chicago/Turabian Documentation – Writing Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI. Get a quick orientation to note systems, Create Chicago/Turabian first references, Create Chicago/Turabian subsequent format references, and Create a Chicago/Turabian Works Cited page.

AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors 11th Edition

Ama style – owl – purdue university.

• AMA Manual of Style Citation Guide by Library of Ohio State University.
• St. Catherine University Libraries provide AMA Citation Style Quick Guide . This handout serves as a quick reference to using the American Medical Association style for citing common information sources.
• American Sociological Association Style Guide 2019 The sixth edition of the ASA Style Guide is the authoritative reference for writing, submitting, editing, and copyediting manuscripts for ASA journals and other publications following ASA’s unique format.
• Quick Tips for ASA Style by American Sociological Association This source is provided to assist students in studying sociology, properly citing format, and referencing their essays.
• ASA Style and Format – American Sociological Association Style and Format Guide.

Resumé Writing Format and Cover Letters

• Developing Resumes: Selecting a Resume Style from TTG Consultants.
• How to Write Resume in English from About.com – English as 2nd Language (ESL).
• How to Put Something on Resumes . Resume Writing Tips, Reviews, Comparisons, and Ratings of Companies that Write Resumes.
• Writing Cover Letters : Sample Cover Letters from Monster Career Center.

Writing Styles Guide

• The Elements of Style Fourth Edition by William Strunk , Jr. This classic book by William Strunk, Jr. on the Elements of Style includes Elementary Rules of Usage, Elementary Principles of Composition, Words & Expressions Commonly Misused, An Approach to Style with a List of Reminders: Place yourself in the background, Revise and rewrite, Avoid fancy words, Be clear, Do not inject opinion, Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity, and much more.
• Common Errors in English Usage: Third Edition by Paul Brians. Mixed-up, mangled expressions; foreign-language faux pas; confused and confusing terms; commonly mispronounced words – they’re all explained in this useful guide. Common Errors in English By Dr. Paul Brians, Professor of English, Washington State University, Pullman, WA. Based on Common Errors in English Usage
• The Grammar Zone provides information about adjectives and adverbs, articles, comparatives and superlatives, clauses, conditionals, confusing words, nouns, numbers, prepositions and conjunctions, pronouns, and questions. The site includes Verbs, Idioms, Paragraph Writing, and more.
• Online English Grammar By Anthony Hughes . Free but copyrighted material. Sound files to learn to pronounce the alphabet. Table of contents. Alphabetical subject index. Grammar clinic. English language practice pages.

Advice for Writing and Formatting

Do not procrastinate;, choose an interesting topic;, do preliminary research;, create an outline;, prepare a draft;, edit, proofread, and format;.

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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Number of Pages

550 words (double spaced)

Deadline: 10 days left

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